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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR,
INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN
THE PRIMARY AND HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMARS,
AND ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO THE WANTS OF
THE COMMON SCHOOLS.
By CHARLES W. SMYTHE, A. M.,
AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS,' AND PRINCIPAL
OF THE LEXINGTON ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL SCHOOL.
GREENSBORO', N. C,
PUBLISHED BY STERLING, CAMPBELL & ALBRIGHT.
Richmond, Va. : W. HARGRAVE WHITE
Columbia, S. C. : TOWNSENT) A NORTH.
1863.
Entered according to Act of Congress,
in the year 1863,
By C. W. SMYTHE,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Confederate
States, for the District of. Pamlico, and.
State of North Carolina.
STROTHER & CO., STEAM PRINTERS,
RALEIGH, N, C.
^X^ PREFACE. *;*
This book is designed to occupy an intermedi-
ate, place between the Primary and the High
School Grammars.
The Primary Grammar is designed to present
the simplest facts of the language ; in such a
manner as to bring them within the comprehen-
sion of children ) and, thus, to prepare the way
for a more complete treatment of the subject in
the higher books.
Tbe High School Grammar, on the other hand,
is designed to be as minute and complete in its
details as the time of pupils in our higher semi-
naries will admit. It also enters quite fully into
the subject of analysis and composition, and par-
tially, hitothe general relations and philosophy
#of language.
It was felt that between the two, there was too.
great an interval.
Therefore, in accordance with the advice and
with the approbation of several of our most expe-
rienced teachers, this book-has been undertaken.
Though prepared as an intermediate book, it
may be used by beginners; and it will also sup-
ply the wants of a large class of pupils in our com-
mon schools who will have no timeto pursue the
subject farther.
That fact has been kept constantly in view in
• th* selection of its material.
Kxercises in composition have been constant I \
• inserted so that it will also form a simple intro-
* duVtion to that important subject.
' • < Uhose who wish to pursue the study fartlfer, arc
referred to the High School Grammar.
I will thankfully receive any suggestions from
others that* their rxpcrietice may dictate.
VV. BMYTHE.
Lexington, N. (J., June, 1863.
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR,
LESSON I.
INTRODUCTION.
1. If we wish to say or write anything to each
.other, we make use of words.
2. Words arc like pictures. If I show y< i o
! a picture of a horse, or dog, you wilHnstantly
think of those animals, and the picture tells you,
as it were, a short story.
3. So if you hear the word horse or see it in a
book, you think at once of the animal called by
that name.
4. Thus the spoken or written word
is a picture to the mind of "some thing or action.
5. We cannot think, nor speak, nor write with-
out words. Hence it is very important to under-
stand their meaning and use.
6. There are in our language over one hundred
thousand words.
Yrt, as we shall see, we can easily learn the
most important things in regard to the use of all
the
6 ELEMENTARY CKAMMAE. [7 — 130
7. If we go into a garden, or into the lickls,
we find a great many flowers and plants. But, if
we look carefully at them,, we shall find that there
are but lew kinds of flowers or plants.
One kind may be roses, another tulips; ethers
may be wheat, corn, cotton, &c.
8. So it is with words. They all come into. a "
few classes.
Some words tell us what the names of things
are, others what they ar_e doing, others still, tell
what kind of things they are, or how they do
anything.
9. These classes of words are commonly called
parts of speech.
10. There are nine classes of words. They are
the noun, pronoun, adjective, article, verb, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection, ■
11. Grammar teaches us the nature and the
uses of words.
LESSON" II.
PROPOSITIONS.
12. In expressing our thoughts we do not use
words singly but write them together; as; "John
walks." " Susan reads her book." . " The wind
blows."
13/ Each one of these collections of words
makes good sense, and declares or asserts some-
thing.
They are called propositions. ■
14 — 16] propositions. • 7
14. A proposition is a simple assertion.
In the proposition, "John runs," Jo/mshows
who does somethiug, runs shows what .he does..
John is called the subject, runs the predicate.
15. The subject is that of which some-
tiling is said or asserted; as, John, in " John
runs.'*'
16. The predicate is that which is said or
asserted of the subject ; like runs, in "John runs."
Every simple' proposition must contain at least
two parts, a subject, and a predicate. •%
Point out the subjects and predicates in these
propositions.
Do it in every lesson.
Model. John runs. John is the subject, because it is
that of 'which something is said. Runs is the predicate, it
is that which is said* of the subject. »
EXERCISES.
John runs. The horse neighs. The wind
blows. . Ti\c trees move. The grass grows. The
moon rises. Apples fall. Water runs.
Complete these propositions by supplying sub-
jects : —
Model. runs. The horse runs. singe.
plays. read. ialls. swim. is sweet.
are playing. came.
Complete these by supplying predicates: —
Model. John . John reads. James . The
apple . Ilorles. . The trees . The winds
. Ships . The IUD .
. Form propositions of your own.
8 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [17 — 18
LESSON III.
NOUNS.
1 7. Such words as James, Susan, Mart/, chair,
tabic, box, we know are names of persons or things.
1. The word noun means name,
* 2. Hence we call all nanies 7iouns.
18., A noun is the name of any person,
place, or thing.
1. They may be either subjects, or predicates
of propositions ; as, "James is a painter"
2. Besides the names of persons, places, and
things, the names of all objects that we can think
of»are nouns ; as, goodness, love, joy, virtue, which
have no bodily existence.
3. Also the names qf letters, figures, and words
used merely as such, are nouns; as, "A is a let-
ter." " 7 is a figure." " Good is an adjective."
Point out the nouns in these exercises and tell
why they are nouns, in this way : — James is a
noun, because it is a name.
EXERCISES.
James. Thomas. Susan. Chair. Table. Box.
Desk. Ink. Mary reads. The cat mews. The
dog barks. Horses run. Wisdom directs. Ex-
ercise strengthens. Eagles fly. Virtue. Gray
„ was a poet, Franklin was a philosopher. A is
an article. Was is a verb.
Supply predicates with these noui^s : —
.Model. Water flows. Henrj is & scholar. Lemons are
fruit. Horses, father, mother, history, wind, stars, ducks,
lilies, dogs, moon, George, acorns.
19 — 20] VERBS.- 9
LESSON IV.
VERBS.
19. In "John, reads," "Mary sings." Jbhn
and Mary are nouns because, they are names.
Reads and sings are not names of objects, but
they show what is done. They are called verbs,
1. Some verbs, like reads, show that something
is dona, .others like is, are, and was show that
something is.
2. To assert means to tell, to declare ; hence. we
say that : —
20. A verb- is a word that asserts some-
thing, or shows what is or is done.
They can form the predicates of propositions
alone. ' ■
EXERCISES.
Point out the nouns and verbs in this way: — Horse is a
noun, because it is a name. Runs is a verb, because it
asserts something.
Caesar conquered. Kings reign. Snow falls.
Charles reads. Lions roar. Grapes ripen.
Flowers bloom. William came. Jesus wept.
Eoses fade. Silver shines. Father came. God
is. Franklin was a printer. Rivers are streams
of water.
Supply subjects with these verbs :—
Sleep, studies, whistle, walk, is sweet, is strong,
come, must study, swim, run.
Point out subjects and predicates, nouns and
verbs in your reading lessons.
IB
10 * ELEMENTAL) •' \.m\)AK. I — 22
LESSON Y
, PRONOUNS.
21. [may say, "John runs,7 or "lie runs;
• \lary sings," or "She sipgs,,'-'
The words he and she stand for John and Mary.
1. They are called prpnoims, because they
stand for names.
2. The word p r o n o u n means Jur a noun.
* 4. They may he -used anywhere instead of
nouns. *
22. A pronoun is a w o r d that stands
i o r a noun; as, "John goes to school. //<
studies his hook," instead of "John' goes to
school/ John studies John's hook."
Point 'out in these exercises, the nouns, pro-
nouns, verbs, subjects and predicates.
Model. John loves his parents. His is a pronoun, be-
cause it stands for a noun, and relates to John.
EXERCISES. .
John reads his hook. Mary studies her lesson.
The trees put forth their leaves. William studies
his lesson. He will please his parents. Mary
will lend .her slate to her cousin. We should
always be kind to our playmates. '
Insert 'pronouns in these sentences :
Mary asked cousin to take to
house. William has gone to father's tor
book. Where are going. broth-
ers are playing in room. - — friend come
with .
23 — 25] ADJECTIVES. 11
LESSON VI
ADJECTIVES.
23. When I say, " The apple is sweet," sweet
tells what kind of apple it is or describes it.
24. Words which describe arc called adjec-
tives ; as, " The tree is talir « The hill is high."
^ A red rose."
Icdl, high and red arc adjectives.
25. An Adjective is a word joined
to a noun or pronoun to describe it.
1. They may form the predicates of proposi-
tions, but cannot be used alone as subjects; as,
" The rose is red" " The tree is tall"
2. AVdien the noun or adjective is used as a
predicate, is, am, ivas or some other part of the
verb be or am is*uscd to connect them with the
subject. The verb thus used is called a copula,
which means a link or joining.
v Point out in each lesson all the things you have
learned and give reasons for everything.
* EXERCISES.
Model, The apple i.s sweet. Siuccl is an adjective, be-
cause it describes apple.
Love conquers all thin God is good.
Mother is kind. The fields are green. The
\v;n'ui suns ripens the grain. The rains refresh
the thirsty earth. The wind is cold. The brave
soldier is worthy of honor. The bright sun
drives away the (lark clouds.
Bftsert adja ■///■, j, a .. in these sentences: —
12 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [26—28
Washington was . The country is .
The tree is by the win*1 The
rain the -grass. He tha is
and when is young, will be r3 when
is — — . William has a dog, a
kitten, and a horse.
Form propositions containing these adjectives : —
Handsome, powerful, warm, mild, gentle, wise,
strong, kind.
LESSON VII.
CLASSES OF NOUNS. * \
26. There are two general classes of nouns.-
. 1. Fi^st, the names of objects that. actually ex-
ist or that we may gain a knowledge of by our
senses ; as, chair, tree, man, James.
2. Second, those which are the names of qual-
ities or attributes, separate from their objects ; a*,
Hardness is a quality of iron, beauty of a flower,
and goodness of God.
3. The first class are called concrete nouns ; the
second, abstract.
27. Under Concrete Nouns arc comprised : —
1. Names of objects that exist as individuals
and may form classes ; as, man, tree, horse.
2. Names of objects that do not exist as indi-
viduals, as, gold, silver, iron, ivood, water, air, wheat,
cotton, ashes, dregs, neivs, wages, $c.
The latter arc called Material nouns.
. 28. Nouns denoting individual objects are divi-
ded into Proper, Common, Complex, and Collective
nouns.
If— Ml CLASSES OF NOUNS. 13
'29. A C o in m o n No u b is the name of
a whole class of objects ; as, tree, horse, man,
city, $c. •«
30. A Pro p e r Noun is a particular name
of any person, place, or thing ; as, city is a name
common to all cities and is a common noun, while
Richmond, Raleigh, and Charleston, arc names of
particular cities and arc proper nouns.
31. A Co n»pl ex Noun i§ a name, together
with some title ; as, Mr. William Johnson, Genera/
Washington, Judge Marshall. They are proper
nouns.
32. A Collective Noun is a noun signi-
fying many persons or things taken as one whole;
as, army, people, nation, society, Congress.
They may be proper nouns ; as, Congress, Par-
liament; or common nouns; as, nation, people,
army.
To analyze is to point out the subject, predicate,
and modifying words.
Parsing is pointing out the classes of words,
their properties and relations.
EXERCISES FOil ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
Model. James is a noun, it is a name ; proper, it w a
particular name.
Tttver i« a noun, it is a name; common, a general name.
Hurley is a noun, it is a name ; material, it denotes a ma
terial substance.
kIucss is a noun, it is a name : abstract, it is the name
oi'a quality.
■')on is a noun, it is a name ; collective, it denotes many
as one whole.
Studies is a verb, it asserts something.
II ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [33
James studies his lesson. T^e river is called
the is'ilc. Barley, wheat, and corn grow in the
(ields. Goodness is a quality to be esteemed.
The nation is divided. Richmond is the Capi
tal of the Confederate States. The bird was
building her nest. INorth Carolina produces corn,
wheat, oats, potatoes, tobacco, and cotton.
Insertproper nouns:
is the Capital of . and • have
gone to . and - are coming with
>
Insert common nouns :
The sees in the dark. The — - is strong.
The is called Rome. and a re beau-
tiful trees.
Insert material nouns :
The Southern States produce , , - — .,
, , , and . is a useful metal.
Wc breathe . The of cows furnishes
and .
Insert collective nouns :
is dismissed. The wras victorious.
— h as adj o urn cd . The was vc ry pi e asant,
LESSON VIII.
CLASSES OF NOUNS CONTINUED.
33. Proper nouns naturally mean but one.
When they stand for more than one object, they
become common nouns; as, Ike twelve' Caesars.
The seven Jameses.
34—37] CLASSES OF NOUNS. 15
* 34. Words like the Russians, the. ElngUsh, mean
ing the whole people are proper ftouns, but when
referring to individuals they are common ; as
uj saw several Russians in Paris."
35. When the is affixed to common nouns they
become proper, when they denote well known
objects or events ; as, the Pari; the Common, the
Deluge.
36. Abstract nouns are names of actions, states
or conditions, properties or qualities.
These include the verbal nonu.
37. A verbal noun is a noun derived from a
verb. It is the name of the action expressed by
the verb; as, "Heading is a pleasant .employ-
ment."
They end in ing. Building, a house or thing
built, and some others have become concrete
nouns.
EXERCISES.
Model. Writing letters to our friends is pleasant labor.
Writing is a noun, it is a name ; verbal, it is derived from
a verb and is the name of an action. Letters and i'ncn< s are
commpn nouns, they are general names. Labor is an ab-
stract noun, it is the name of an action. Writing is the sub-
ject; lahor the predicate.
Reading good books is improving. Stealing
is base. The lightuing is vivid. Goodness and
mercy have followed me all the days of my life.
The French are an active people.
Write scnt< Main ;ag these nouns : Summ r,
snow, ice} winter, city, river, mountain, h<»ise.
Model. That is my father's house.
16 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [38 — 40
LESSON IX.
•CLASSES OF PROPOSITIONS.
38. In expressing our thoughts we may declare
something; ask something;, command, exhort, or
entreat something; or exclaim. something.
39. Hence there are four kinds of propositions ;
declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclama-
tory.
What kind of propositions are these ?
James reads. "What is he reading ? Let him
read. How well he reads ! The winds are cool.
How cool the winds are ! Have you seen James
to-day ? Come to me.
Analyze and parse these and tlic following proposi-
tions.
40. Declarative and imperative propositions
end with periods(.) ; interrogative, with the
interrpgation point(?); and exclamatory, with
the exclamation point(!).
I.- Change these into interrogative sentences i—
Model. James is coming. Is James coming ?
She is stealing. Stealing is base. Borneo is
an island. Water is a liquid. Washington was
wise. The country is free. The days arc long.
II. Make these imperative :
Model. John studies his lesson. Let John study his
lesson, or John study your lesson.
Is your sister coming ? The dogs bark. You
prize virtue highly. Bad men are not esteemed.
The wind blows.
III. Make these exclamatory :
Model. The sky is beautiful. How beautiful the sky is !
41 — 44] NUMBER. 17
Does Mary play well? He reads well. The
moon shines brightly. Does the rain fall heavily ?
IV. Make these declarative.
Have you seen my book? Will you lend me
your slate ? How brightly the sun shines. Let
Susan write a letter to her mother. Will you go
with me ? '*
Write declarative sentences containing any one of
these ivords : —
J.ohn, flows, runs, boys, more, water, horses,
clouds, lessons, books.
LESSON X.
NUMBER.
41. We may say boy, boys ; man, men; horse,
horses. i?% means one boy ; boys, more than one.
1; This difference in the form of words is called
u-u mber, and it belongs to nouns, pronouns,
and verbs.
42. Number is a change in the form of
words to show whether one, or more than one is
meant.
1. There are two forms, called the singular %nd
the plural.
2. The singular denotes but one.
3. The plural denotes more than one.
43. The plural of most nouns is formed by
adding s to the singular; as, boy, boys ; horse,
horses.
44. Where the s added to the word would be
.hard to pronounce, es is added ; as lash, fashes ;
fox, foxes; church, church*
*18 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [4(J — 49
45. The letters a, e, i, o, u; are called vowels.
The rest arc called consonants.
46. A few nouns form their plurals by chang-
ing the vowel ; as, man, men ; goose, geese ; foot,
feet; mouse, mice.
47. The nouns which add c.s are : —
1. First, nouns ending in x, z, ss, sh, or ch, soft.
2. Second, nouns ending in f, or /e, change
those endings into, ves ; as, calf, calves ; half,
halves ; wife, wives.
Except nouns in ff, and gulf, roof, hoof mischief
brief' chief strife, fife, safe, grief, dwarf, turf, proof,
reproof, scarf, and surf, which adds «s.
3. Third, nouns ending in y prece'ded by a
consonant change y into ies.
But nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel
generally add s ; as, day, days ; y alley, 'valleys.
4. Fourth, nouns ending in i generally acldVa ;
as, alkali, alkalies.
5. Fifth, nouns in o preceded by a consonant
generally add es ; as, hero, heroes ; cargo> cargoes ;
negro, negroes. . ' ,
Except 'junto, canto, tyro, grotto, portico, solo,
quarto, octavo, duodecimo, memento, two, zero, which
add s.
48. A few nouns add n or en ; as ox, oxen ; cow,
coiven gives lane ; sow, sowen, swine.
49. A few nouns have two plurals with differ-
ent meanings ; as, .
Brother, brothers (of the same family,) brethren
(of a society.)
Die, dies (for coining,) dice (for gaming.)
50—52] NUMBER. 19
Fish, fishes (in number as twelve,) fish (the
species.)
Fowl, fowls (in number,) fowl (the species.)
Genius, geniuses (men of genius,) genii (spirits.)
Index, indexes (tables of contents,) indices
(signs in algebra.)
Fea, peas (in number,) pease (the species.)
Penny, pennies (coins in number,) pence (in
value.)
50. Some arc found only in the singular:
They are ; 1. most material nouns ; as, gold,
iron, ivood, wheat, air, silver, sugar, wine, $c. ; 2.
most abstract nouns.; as, goodness, virtue, wisdom ;
3. names of the sciences ; as, Algebra, Music,
31 'at hematics ; 4. the names' of some diseases ;
as,- cholera, measles, frc; 5. the word news.
. 51. Some are found only in the plural ; as,
ashes, dregs, embers, goods, clothes, maimers, moreds,
thanks, billows, scissors, nippers, tongs, shears,
breeches, <fc.
Horse, foot, infantry, are also plural in meaning.
52. Some nouns have the same form in both-
numbers; as, deer, sheep, trout, salmon, cannon,
saiL shot, Itead, weight, means.
Form the plural of these nouns : — boy, girl,
chair, table, desk, book, inkstand, pen, man,
goose, foot, mouse, lash, miss, fox, church.
What number are these, and why? — Man,
boys, girl, men, books, guns, top, churches,
dishes, mouse, lice, annals, iron, wheat, deer. .
EXERCISES.
Model My horse trots. Horse is a noun, it is a name :
common, it. is a general Dame; singular number, it means
but one ; and is the subject.
20 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [53 — 56
Sour horse is large. My books arc new.
Those cows arc fine. Trees grow. Fishes swim.
The road is Ions:. Snow is cold.
LESSON IX.
NUMBER CONTINUED.
53. In compounds the principal words lake
the sign of the plural ; as, fathers-in-law, courts- .
martial. But compounds without the hyphen (-)
make the last number plural ; as, spoonfuls, out-
goings. .
54. Usage is still unsettled as to the plural of '
complex nouns.
1. "When they arc preceded by a numeral the
noun is made plural ; as, " The two Mr. Browns."
The noun with Mrs. takes the plural; as, "The
Mrs. Browns."
2. Both title and name should not take the
plural. We must say either the Misses Brown,
or the Miss Browns.
3. The tendency seems to be in favor of the
former, especially in respectful address, while in
familiar, colloquial .style the latter prevails.
4. A title applied to more than one person is
made plural; as, "Generals Beauregard and
Johnson."
55. Many foreign words retain. their original
plurals. Those in on and um change those end-
ings *to a; those in a to ae and ata; those in its,
to i and era ; those in is, to es and ides.
. 56. The foreign words most frequently used,
are as follows :
56J
NUMBEK.
21
I. Those that retain their original plural alone
are:—
Singula/'
r/un
jl. Singular.
Plural
Alumnus,
alumni
Hypothesis,
hypotheses.
Analysis,
analyses. Larva,
larva:.
Axis,
axes.
Nebula,
nebula).
Basis,
bases.
Oasis,
cases]
Beau, *
beaux.
' Parenthesis,
parentheses.
Crisis,
crises.
Phenomenon,
phenomena.
Datum,
data.
Radius,
radii.
Ellipsis,
ellipse:
s. Stimulus,
stimuli.
Erratum,
errata.
Stratum,
strata.
Genus,
. genera
II. Tho^
>e which have both an
English and
foreign plural :
Singular.
Foreign Pturcti; English Plural.
Apex,
apices,
apexes.
Appendix,
appendices,
a^pendixr
Cherub,
cherubim,
cherubs.
Formula,
formulse,
formulas".
Memorandum,
memoranda,
memorandum.^
keraph,
seraphim,
EXERCISI
seraphs.
Indices are sjgns in Algebra. Indexes are ta-
bles of contents. Analysis is the separation of
anything into its parts. An oasis is a fertile spot
in a desert. The Miss Joneses have gone to
Charleston. Jeffersoq Davis was the first Presi-
dent of the Confederate State
Complete these senf r ; —
22 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [57 — 6
and gnaw in the floor. Violent
— — overturn and houses. , — ^ and
, draw carts, , and -.
Compose sentences containing these words :
Foxes. Dogs. Rabbits. Flowers. Leaves.
Clouds.
LESSON XII.
PERSON.
i
57. We say, /run, you run, he runs or John
runs.
1. 1 is the speaker, you the one spoken to, Ae or
John the one spoken oi\
This distinction is called person. "
58. Person is the property of nouns and pro-
nouns,- that denotes the speaker, the person spoken
to, and the person or object spoken of.
59. There are three persons, first, second, and
third.
1* The first person denoted the speaker.
2. The second person denotes the person
spoken to.
3. The third person denotes the person or
object spoken of.
60. Nouns are generally in the third person.
1. The pronoun has different words to repre-
sent the persons.
2. /is always in the first ; you in the second ;
he, she, and it in the third person.
3. Verbs have the three persons to agree with
the subject. .
61—63] * person. 23
EXERCISES.
Model. John sings. John is a proper noun, it is a par-
ticular name ; third person, spoken of,; singular number, it
mea«£ but one, and is the subject of the proposition. Sings is
a verb, it asserts something, third person, singular number
to agree with the subject John, by
Rule IT. The verb must agree with^the subject in number and
person.
Mary plays. The apple falls. The sun is
' bright. Susan reads her hook. Thomas flies his
kite.
The bird flies. Water flows. The rains fall.
The trees put forth their leaves. Tljc rivers flow
into the sea. Columbus was born at Genoa.
Compose sentences containing these words. .
\, summer, thou or you.
John, - river, he.
Mary, . snow, wheat.
LESSON XIII.
GENDER.
61. All living things are divided -into two
classes, males and females.
This distinction is called sex.
62. All nouns arc divided into three class,
those that are names of males, those that are
names of females, and those that are neither
male nor female.
This distinction is called Gender,
63. Gender is a distinction of nouns in
regard t«» sex.
•
24 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [64 — 08
■ 64. There are three genders ; masculine ,
feminine, and neuter.
The word neuter means neither. It is applied
to objects which are neither male nor female.
6b. The names of males are m a s c uli n e .
The names of female beings are f e m i n i n c .
The names of things without life are
neuter.
66. A few nouns like parent, cousin, deer, sheep,
child, relative, may be either masculine or feminine.
The are usually said to be of the common gen-
der. If their gender is not known, they may 'be
parsed as " of the masculine or feminine gender."
67. In pronouns of the third person, he is mas-
culine, she is feminine, it is neuter. « ;
68. Sometimes things without-life are personi-
fied, or spoken of in the same manner in which
persons are.
Then they masculine or feminine.
1. In these cases, such' objects as possess
strength, courage, majesty, and other manly attri-
butes, are considered masculine; and those that
possess the attributes of receiving, containing,
and which are gentle and lovely, are considered
feminine.
2. Thus, time, death, fear, xoar, the sun, winter,
are masculine ; and 'peace, hope, wisdom, spring,
the earth, the moon, are feminine. . .
3. The same distinction is made among Ani-
mals, when the species is spoken of; as " The
lion takes up his abode in the forest." " The cat
is noted for her love of home."
69]
UENBER.
25
5.
When the distinction of gender among ani-
mals is unimportant they are considered neuter ;
as, " I had a kid and sold it."
69. Some masculine nouns have corresponding
feminines. They are distinguished in three ways.
I. First, by different words.*
Masculine.
Man,
Master,
Masculine.
Bachelor.
Boy,
Brother,
Father,
Gentleman,
Husband,
King,
Lord,
• Feminine.
maid.
girl.
sister.
mother.
lady.
„ wife.
queen.
lady.
Master,
Nephew,
Papa,
Sir,
Son,
&c.
Feminiio
woman.
mistress.
miss.
neice.
mamma.
madam.
daughter.
II. By difference of termination.
MascuUu' Feminine. .Masculine. Feminine
Abbot,
abbess.
Jew,
Jewess.
Administrator
, administratrix. Lion,
lioness.
Author,
authoress.
Patron,
patroness.
Baron, ■
baroness.
Poet,
poetess.
Benefactor,
benefactress.
Priest,
priestess.
Count,
countess.
Prince,
princess.
Deacon,
deaconess.
Prophet,
prophetess.
Duke, •
duchess.
Shepherd,
shepherdess
Emperor,
empress.
Tailor,
tail ore-
Executor,
executrix.
Testator,
testatrix.
Ilcir,
heiress.
Tiger,
tigress.
Hero,
heroine.
Tutor,
tuf'
Host,
hostess.
Widower,
\vi<!
Instructor,
instruct!
-For full lints tee Sigh School Grammar.
.26 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [69
III. By composition or by prefixing words.
Bridegroom, bride. Manservant, maidservant.
Gentleman, gentlewoman. Male-child, ' female-child.
He-goat, she-goat. Schoolmaster, schoolmistress.
Landlord, landlady. and some others.
Male, female.
EXERCISES.
v Model. John studies his lesson-. John is a proper noun,
it is a particular name ; masculine gender, it is the name
of a male; third person, it is spoken of; singular number,
it means but one, and is the subject. His is a pronoun, it
stands for a noun ; masculine gender ; third person ; singu-
lar number to agree with John, by-
Rule IX. Pronouns agree with their noUns in gender,
number, and person.
Mary plays upon the piano. Jane reads her
books. The green grass grows in the fields. . The
cat is rfoted for her love of home. Augustus was
the patron of men of letters.
Supply masculine subjects to these 'propositions :
— — conquered. is prudent. is a
tailor. is grateful. will be thankful.
_j — guards his flocks.
Supply feminine subjects : #
_ plays. is cheerful. is change-
able. , is a tailoress. is a teacher.
can sing.
Supply neuter subjects :
roil. grow. is hard. are
rreen. — — shines. — - is falling. is an
animal.
70—74] case. 27
LESSON XIV.
CASE.
70. I say, "John runs," l* John's horse runs,"
"James teaches John," "He gave John a book,"
and "John come to me." Here John appears in
different ways or relations.
These 'relations- are called cases.
71. C a s o is the relation that nouns and pro-
nouns have to other words in the same sentence.
72. In "John runs," John is the subject and is
in the nominative case.
"In John's horse runs," John's denotes the pos-
sessor and is in the possessive case.
In "James teaches John," John is the object
of the verb teach, or the person acted on, and is
in the objective case.
In "He gave John a book," it denotes that to
or for whom, anything is or is done and is the in-
direct object. It may be called the dative case.
In "John come to me," it is the name of the ob-
ject addressed and is in the vocative case.
73. The Nominative case is the subject
of the proposition ; as, "John reads."
The Possessive case denotes possession,
origin, or fitness ; as "John's hat," "The sun's
rays," "Men's shoes."
The Objective case is the object of the verb.
The ]) a t i v e case denotes that to or far which ani
thing is or is done. *
i
* The indirect object is distinct andseparato lroin the
other relations, and though it is rare in its occurrence, m
be distinguished, and may properly be called by its true
nauie. It is the office of the dative to express this relation.
28 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [75 — 76
The vocative ease denotes the person or
thing addressed.
74. lo decline is to give the cases, numbers, and
persons.
Nouns are declined thus :
Singular. Plural.
Nominative Boy, Nbm.'~Boys}
Possessive Boy's, Poss. Boys',
Objective Boy. Obj. Boys.
Deeline girl, bird, box, hand.
EXERCISES.
Model. Susan reads.. Susan is a noun, it is a name ;
proper, it is a particuliar name ; feminine gender, it is the
name. of a female; third person, spoken of; singular, num-
ber, it means but one ; nominative case, it is the subject, by
Eule I. The subject of the proposition is put in the nom-
inative case.
Water flows. Roses bloom. Apples fall.
Horses run. TJie Saviour lives. Abraham was
faithful. England was invaded. Exercise strength-
ens. Stealing is base. David was king.
Write sentences containing these words as Subjects :
Water. Flowers. Spring. Rivers. Country.
Peaches. Flour. Iron. Molasses. Coffee.
LESSON XV.
j FORMATION OF THE CASES OF NOUNS. «
75. The nominative, objective, da-
tive, and vocative cases have the same form.
This is the simple form of the noun.
76. The nominative maybe determined by ask-
ing the question who ? or whatf; as, "John runs."
Who runs? Ans. John. John is in the nomina-
tive case.
77—79] noun^. -29
77. The I* o 8 s,e s si Ve case singular is lonn-
0(1 by adding the apostrophe (') and 5; as, in
John's hat.
1. When the 5 will not unite easily with the
word, the apostrophe only is added ; as, for con-
science' sake, Moses' hat) Thetis' son. See II. S,
Gr. 256, 6.
2. When the plural ends in s, the apostro-
phe only is added ; as, 7 he boys' boohs. The girls'
play.
When the ph\ral does not end in s, the pos-
sessive is formed as in the singular; as, Men's
hats.
Form the possessive case of these nouns : Man.
tree, girl, horse, William, Thomas, Susan, Mary,
cow, horses, boys, girls, men.
78. The direct Objective may be deter-
mined by asking whom? ox what?; as, "He cuts
wood." What does he cut ? Ans. wood. Wood
is in the objective.
79. The indirect object or Dative by asking to
or for whom; as," He gave me a book." To
iv horn did he give it? Ans. me. Me is the indi-
rect or dative object.
EXERCISES.
]\Iodel. Mary's book is new. Mary's is a proper noun, a
particular name ; feminine gender, the name of a female :
third person, spoken of; singular number, means but one ;
possessive case, denotes possession and limits book, by
Rule V. A noun or pronoun limiting another noun
denoting a different person or thing is put in the possessive
case.
30 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [81 — 83
Mary's lesson is easy. Rufus's book is new.
William's uncle is a farmer. Men's .shoes are
large and strong. The sun's rays enlighten the
earth. My garden is 'productive. His book is
clean, your book is soiled.
Supply possessive cases in these propositions :
sister sings. father is coming.
hat is lost. hats are made of fur. rays
are not so bright as the — — . skin is thick.
top is high.
'•;■;* * LESSON XVI.
PRONOUNS. •
81. A Pronoun is a word which is not the
name of an object, but which may be used instead
of [a noun. «*
82. Pronouns are divided into P e r s o u a 1 ,
Possessive, Demonstrative, Inter-
rogative, R el a t i v e , and Definitive
pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
83. Personal pronouns are those that show
by their form of what person they are.
1. They are I, thou or you, he, she, and it.
2. 1 represents the first person, thou or you the
second, he, she, anjd it the third.
.3. They are. divided into substantive or pure
personal pronouns, which do not stand for nouns
hut represenjjjpersons themselves, and demoristra-
tivcs.
t 84—87] pronouns. 31
'84. /, and thou or you, are substantive pronouns.
85. He, she and it, arc demonstratives, that is,
they point out precisely the objects to which
they relate; as, He is the man, she is the woman,
or it is the thing that you seek.
He is masculine, she feminine, it neuter.
The first and second persons have no form to
show their gender, since they are always present
and their gender is known.
86. They are thus declined ;
Singular.
PlVfil.
Mom. Poss.
Obj.
Nbm.
Poss.
Obj.
I, my,
me;
. We,
our,
us.
Thou, thy,
thee;
You,
your,
you.
He, his,
hiin;
They,
their,
them.
She, her,
her;
They,
their,
them.
It, its,
it;
They,
their,
them.
1. The Dative has the same form as the objec-
tive. In fact, him and them are true datives and
not objective, except in usage.
2. The vocative has the same form as the nom-
inative.
87. Some grammarians give two forms of the
possessive case, as my or mine, thy or thine, your
or yours.
Others consider my, thy, £v., the true possessive
cases, and others still restrict the possessive case;
to mine, $c.
My and thy now perform the office of the pos-
sessive case ; as, My hat.
In poetry and in solemn style mine and thine
are sometimes used as possessive cases, before
32 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [88
tli'e vowels and silent h; as, " iJfme hour is not
vet come.". Mine iniquity. 7/iwie agxnry.
Thou is now used only in addressing the Deity,
in the Scriptures, in solemn and impassioned-
writings, and among the Friends.
88. Myself, thyself, himself, 'herself, itself, with
their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves are
compound personal pronouns. •
1. They are joined to nouns and pronouns to
make them more emphatic; as/ "I myself."
"The mountains themselves decay with years."
2. They are also used when the subject and
object are the same person ; as, " I blame ray-
self." "She admires herself/' They are then
called Reflexive pronouns.
EXERCISES.
Model. I study my lesson. I is a personal pronoun, it
points out 'the person, substantive kind; first person, it
denotes the speaker ; singular number, means but one;
nominative case, it is the subject, by Kule I.
Tho no pronoun in. the predicate of a proposition
is parsed, by Kule III.
The noun or pronoun in the predicate agrees with the
subject in case) as, " James is sprinter."
I am glad to see. you. My horse is in the field.
You yourself said it. ■ The mountains themselves
decay with years. Franklin was a printer's ap-
prentice. General Lee is the Commander-in-
chief of the Confederate army.
Insert personal' pronouns :
■ am going to see cousin. house
is near — ~ brother's. ■ may go with .
Will - — bring bonnet. wish to see
— — . Come with .
89—90] DEMONSTRATIVE rRONOUNS.
LESSON- XV] I.
POSSESSIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
89. The Possessive pronouns are those
-which stand for nouns and, at the same time,
deuote possession.
X They are mine, thme,'his, hersyits, oars, yours,
theirs.
2. His and it$ are the same as the possessive
cases of the personal pronouns. Hers, ours, youn .
theirs, are formed from the possessive cases by
adding s.
3. They have the same person, number, gen-
der,, and case as tl;e nouns which they represent •
as, « This book is yours." Yours is equal to ymtr
book and has all the properties of book.
4. They are indeclinable and used in the nom-
inative and objective cases only; as, "The book
is mine, hers is lost, but he has found his."
90. The demonstrative pronouns are this and
thai and their plurals these and those.
1. They point out precisely the objects to which
they relate.
2. This and these refer to the nearest objects ;
that and those to the more distant.
EXERCISES.
This is my book ; that is yours. Your pleas-
mine are yet to come. Mr. Bowen
my father's friend, has returned. The source of
the Nile, the river of Egypt, has not vat been di
covered. The white house is his.
Insert possessive and demonstrative pronouns:
34 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [91— 9<
House is ? is . who ar(
industrious wiH . Whose slate is ? —
is , but is . are .
LESSON XVIII.
INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
91. Interrogative pronouns are those
used in asking questions; as, "Who is your
friend ? "
1. They are who, which, and lohat.
2. Who is used in reference to persons ; which
and :what in reference 'either to persons or things.
r-8. Who is always used without a noun or sub-
stantively; which and what are also used as adjec-
tives ; as " Whichhook are you reading? " " What
man is that ?"
4. They are declined like the relative pro-
nouns.
5. Interrogatives refer to a noun or pronoun
following them called the consequent; as " Whose
hat is this?" Ans. John's. Whose refers to
Johns. . •
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
92. " The boy, who studies, will learn." Who
relates to boy and stands for it. It also connects
"Who studies " with "The boy will learn."
Who -is called a relative pronoun.
93 The Relative pronouns are who, which,
tohat, and that. As is^a relative after many, such,
and same.
94 — 95] pronouns. 85
94. Relative pronouns stand for
nouns and connect propositions or
clauses.
. 1. The clause in which they stand is called the
relative clause and it is always a subordinate or
modifying proposition.
2. They cannot stand in principal propositions,
while personal pronouns can.
3. Who stands for persons, which for animals
and things. That is used in the place of who or
which.
4. Who is never used as an adjective.
5. Which may be used as an adjective, as for
which reason.
6. The noun for which the relative stands is
called its antecedent.
7. The relative pronoun always relates t<>
some definitive word expressed or understood
modify in g its antecedent, called the correla-
tive; as, " He is the man xohom I saw.'' The is
the correlative.
95. The relatives have the same form in both
numbers and are thus declined : —
JVbwi.,«\Vho,
Poss.,
Whjfcc,
Oty\) Whom.
" Which;
u
Whose,
" Which
" That,
*' That.
Which,
" Which
Thai, the original relative, has no posse;
now existing. Whose may be used for it when
needed.
36 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [96 — 97
96. What is used as a relative in both nurn-
beis; as "This is what is wanted." " These
books are what are wanted."
1. What is used as a relative only when the
antecedent is omitted. Where the antecedent is
expressed which is used ; as, " I saw ivhat I desir-
ed to see," "I saw the thine/ which 1 desired to
see."
2. What is usually parsed as a compound rela-
tive equivalent to that which; as, "I know what
you desire." " I know that which you desire:"
(hat as the antecedent and object of know, which
as the relative and object of desire.
3. It is simpler and more consistent with the
structure of propositions, to parse the clauses
containing ivhat and similar words as. wholes,
subjects or objects ' of the propositions ; . as,
" What you desire " is the object of know, and
"what" the object of desire.
97. Whoever, whichever, wJiatever, whoso, wjioso-
, whichsoever, and whatsoever, are called Com-
pound Relatives.
1. They are parsed like what; as " Whoever
studies will learn." Whoever studies is the sub-
ject of will learn, and whoever the subject gf studies.
2. They are also used without antecedents.
3. Only whoever and whosoever are declinable.
They are the same in both numbers, as follows :
Xo?n. Whoever. Poss. Whosever. Obj. Whomever.
EXERCISES.
Model. Who is. a pronoun, it stands for a noun; inter-
rogative, it aeks a question ; ihird person, singular, to agree
98] . DEFINITIVE PRONUONS. 37
with the arnswer, father, by Rule^lX; and in the nominative
case, by Rule I.
Who is a pronoun, it stands for a noun ; relative, it relates
to man, and connects the clauses; third person, singular, to
agree with man, by Rule IX; and in the nominative case,
by Rule I.
Fointout the clauses, thus: "The man is happy," is the
principal clause, " Who is good," is the relative clause.
Who connects the two together. •
Who gave this book to yqi My father gave
it to me. Which is your book ? The one with
a red coyer is mine. The man, ivho is good, is
happy. He is the man, whom I saw. The rose,
which we saw, was fading. Whoever is indue
trious and temperate will succeed.
Supply pronouns in- these sentences :
shall I do? did you say it was?
are you going to see ? This is the boy
came with us. crosses the bridge must pny
toll. The' tree, 1 planted, i3 producing fruit
This is tlie dog ^ was barking.
LESSON XIX.
i
DEFINITIVE PRONOUNS.
(.>S. The Definitive pronouns are those that a*e
sometimes used as adjectives to define nouns, and
sometimes as pronouns; as, " JFAtsbook," ■ " This
is mine."
1. They are (1.) the demonstrative pronou
this, that, these aud t sc, (2.) the deatributives *
each, every, eitfo r, and neither, (3.) the indefinites
some, one, all, any, stick,' none, several, another, other,
38 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [99
both, few, own,' much, many, same, former, and
latter.
2. One, other, and another are thus declined :
Sing.
Plu.
Sing.
Plu.
Sing.
Xom.
One,
ones,
Other,
others,
Another.
Poss.
One's,
ones',
Other's,
others',
Another's
Obj. '
One;
ones.
Other ;
others.
Another.
3. Another is not found in the plural.
4. These pronouns may be modified like nouns;
as, each one, some one.
99. Such forms as each other, one another are
called Reciprocal pronouns.
They are treated as compounds and form their
possessives as such ; as, each other's, one another's.
"Bear one another's burdens." That is, let
each one bear the other's burdens. " They praise
each other." Each is in apposition with they,
and other the object of praise.
EXERCISES.
There are two coats, you may have either of
them. This book is mine, that is yours. Some
place the bliss in action, some in ease. Some one
is calling you. Each one must account for him-
self. Bear one another's burdens.
Complete these sentences :
Let each assist, the . You may take
of the . Choose of the three.
flowers are , are . Ko
blames '-. man praises .
100—103] ADJECTIVES. 29
LESSON XX.
ADJECTIVES.
100. I say Wgood man, a tall man, this man, that
man. Good and tall describe man. Ihis and that
point out which one is meant.
They are all adjectives.
101. An A dj e cti v e is a word joined to a
noiih or pronoun to describe or define it.
1. It may with the verb to be form the predicate
of a proposition, but cannot of itself form the
subject. *
2. That it may be predicated of the subject the
copula be is used ; as. " The sun is bright."
3. The primary use of the adjective is to ex-
press the predicate. When we know that " an
apple is sweet," we may speak of it as " a sweet
apple "or use it in an attributive sense.
4. Some adjectives express the predicate only;
as, alike, alone, awake, aware, mindful, worth,
5. Some are rarely used, except as attributes;
as, dally, hourly, golden, thievish, 'paternal, fraternal^
#e.
102. There are two kinds of adjectives, descrip-
tive and definitive.
103. Descriptive adjectives describe nouns
by pointing out their qualities ; as, a good mau, a^
kind man.
1. Adjectives derived from proper names are
called jiropcr adjecfivi 8. They should begin with
capital letters; as, Roman, American.
■1. Those derived from verbs are called verbal
adjectivqp; as, endtering friendship, a learned imu\.
40 " ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [104 — 106
104. The adjective is sometimes used as a noun,
as good and evil, right and wrong, the chief good.
EXERCISES.-
Model. iSiveet is a descriptive adjective, it is a word ■
joined to a noun to describe it, and belongs to apples, by
Kule VI. Adj ec lives modify the nouns ivhich they
describe or define.
Table is a common noun, a general name; neuter gender,
neither male nor female; third person, spoken of; singular
number, means but one ; and objective case, it is the object
of strikes, by
llule X. The object of the the transitive verb is put in
the objective case.
The apple is sweet. James strikes the table.
The bright sunlight chases away the clouds. The
tall trees bend before the strong wind. The
olimate of this favored region is delightful.
Complete these sentences by inserting adjectives :
houses are . The ■ dog is a
animal. The - — man will become .
men are . The pear is a fruit. Whose
children are — — ?
LESSON XXI.
DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES.
105. Definitive adjectives define or limit
nouns, by pointing out which one, or how many ;
as, this man, that man, each man, ten men.
They are divided into numeral and pronominal
adjectives.
106. Numerals are Words used in count-
ing, and are of two kinds, cardinals- sm&^ordinals.
107—108] DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES.
41
1. The Cardinals denote how many ; as, „
o?ie, two.
2. The O r d in a 1 s denote which one ; as,
first, second.
3. The leading cardinals,, Ordinals, and numeral
adverbs are : —
Cardinals.
One,
Two,
Three,
Four, &c. ,
Ten,
Twenty-one,
Ordinal*.
First,
Second,
Third,
Fourth, &q.j
Tenth,'
Twenty -one.
Xmrn ral Adverts
Once,
Twice,
Thrice,
Four times,
Ten times,
Firstly.
Secondly.
Thirdly.
Fourthly.
Tenthly.
Twcnty-pne,&c Twenty-first.
107. The pronominal adjectives are those
that arc sometimes used as pronouns.
When used with nouns, they are adjectives ;
when used without nouns, they are pronouns ; as.
This man, Here this is an adjective. This is
mine. Here this is a pronoun.
108. Pronominal adjectives are divided
into dem nstratives, distributives, and indefinites,
1. The demonstratives are this, that, these.
(hose, yon, yonder. They point out precisely which
are meant.
2. The distributives are each, every f either
and neither. They point out objects separately ;
as, each man, each separate man.
3. The indefinites arc some, any, all.
such, same, former, latter, own, Utile, much, both,
ral, many* fw, no or none, one, other, another,
which, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatever, what,
soever.
They point out no particular person or thing.
42 ELEMENTARY &RAMMAE. [109 — 110
EXERCISES.
Model. This man is tall. This is a definitive adjective,
demonstrative kind, it defines precisely wnat is meant ; it
defines man, by Kule VI.
Remark. — Definitives must agree with their nouns in
number.
These apples are sweet. '■ Ten units make one
ten. Yonder tall tree is a long-leaved, pine.
Each hour brings its duties.
That little cottage yonder is my own. The
same man whom we saw yesterday will meet us
to-day.
Compose sentences containing these adjectives : —
Good, tall, excellent, high, green, each, several,*
many, studious, no, brave, sweet.
LESSOR XXII.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
109. I may say, this man is tall, that man is
taller, but James is the-tallest.
1. Here are three different degrees of height ;
tall, taller, tallest
2. This distinction is cajled in Grammar com-
parison.
110. There are three degrees of comparison ;
positive, comparative, and super-
lativ e.
1. The first is the simple or positive state, tall.
2. It describes without comparison.
3. The second is the comparative degree, taller.
111—112] COMPARISON. 48
4. It expresses a higher or lower degree ol
• [imlity than the positive ami makes a comparison
between two.
5. It is formed by adding r or er to the posi-
tive. %-
(>. The third is the superlative degree, tallest.
7. It expresses the highest or lowest degree,
and makes a comparison between three or more.
8. It is formed by adding si- or est to the posi-
tive.
111. Adjectives of one syllable and many of
more than one are thus compared : —
yosit\rt .
Comparative.
Supcrhttit > .
High,
higher,
highest.
Sweet,
sweeter,
sweetest.
Happy,
happier,
happiest.
Fie changed into I before er'&nd est ; as, hap-
py, happier, happiest.
Compare in this manner : — long, safe, light,
heavy, broad, great, large, hot, noble, able, lofty. -
112. The comparative degree is usually follow-
ed by than and a noun in the nominative to a
verb understood; as, "AVisdom is better than
rubies [are.]
exei;<
•
Moi-ia.. Thomas is taller than .lames. Taller is an
u«yectfve, a word joined to w noun to modify it ; descriptive,
% describes Thomas : comparative degree, if makes a com;
parison between two, anil modifies Thomas, by Rule VI.
Wisdom is better4* than rubies. Platinum is
heavier than gold ; it is the heaviest of tlie #
metals. *
44
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [113 — 116
Mary is taller »than Jane. She is the tallest of
the sisters. You are stronger than he is.
Complete these sentences : —
Iron is — — - than lead. The pine is — : — than
the oak.
Susan is the of the family. The
pine is a
tree.
James is ,
and
LESSON XXIII.
COMPARISON CONTINUED.
113. Most long adjectives are compared by the
help of more and most, or less and least ; as pleas-
ant, more pleasant, most pleasant ; industrious, less
industrious, least industrious.
114. Diminution of quality is expressed by less
and least ; as, less beautiful, least beautiful.
The ending ish expresses a slight degree of
quality ; as, blackish, somewhat" black ; sweetish,
a little sweet.
115. Some adjectives are detective in some of
the degrees, which are Supplied, by other words.
EXAMPLES.
PbsUive. Comparative. <
Superlative?.
Good, better,*
best.
Bad, ill, or evil, worse,
worst.
Much, or many, more,
most.
Little, less,
least.
Old, older, elder,
oldest, eldest.
.116. A few adjectives are. irregular, but not
# defective ; as,
[7—119]
com par:
[SON. 4
Aft,
after,
aftermost.
Far,
farther,
farthest.
Fore,
former,
foremost, 'first.
(Forth,)
further,
furthest.
Hind,
hinder,
hindmost, hin&ermosl
Late,
later,
latest, or last.
Low,
lower,
lowest, lowermost.
Near,
nearer,
nearest, next.
117'. Some are deiective in the positive forming
their comparative and.superlative from preposi-
tions and adverbs ; as,
(Out,)
outer, or
utter,
outmost, uttermost,
(In.)
inner,
hither,
innermost, inmost,
hithermost.
[(Be)neath,
nether,
under,
nethermost,
undermost.
Rear,
rearmost.
Like rear are compared, front, mid, middh ,
north, south, east, ivest, northern, southern, eas'tem,
western.
118. In the double forms, much is used in speak-
ing of quantity, many of number; nearest is used
in reference to place; next, to time; later and
latest, in reference to time ; latter and last, to
order ; further means more in front ; farther more
distant.
119. A few descriptive adjectives cannot l»>
compared; as, Almighty, chief, circular, confined.,
dead, empty, everlasting, eternal, false, free, infix it < .
natural, perfect^ solid, sound, square, free, fie.
1. Some of these are used by good writers in
the different degrees ; as, " A more perfect resem
blance."
46 - ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [120 — 122
.Compare these words : —
Beautiful, courageous, grateful, unmindful,
high, generous, small, penurious, empty, eternal
lofty.
EXERCISES,
The best men are not the most successful.*
The worst men are otten successful. Honesty
is the best policy. Truth is more wonderful than
fiction.
His oldest brother's son was sick. William,
the Conqueror, defeated Harold, tlie Saxon king.
Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold.
Compose sentences containing^these words : —
Everlasting, good, industrious, manly, amiable,
lovely, tall, handsome, delightful.
I/ESSON XXIV.
ARTICLES.
120. The words a or an and the are called arti-
cle s.
121. A or an is called the indefinite article.
Ihe is called the d e f i n i te article.
122. The noun without the article is used in its-
widest sense. Man means all men, the race of
men.
1. A man means one man, but no particular
man. ,
* Most successful and similar forms should be parsed
together as comparatives or superlatives.
123—124] ARTICLES. 47
2. The man means a particular man, who was
mentioned or known before ; as, "1 met a man
and a boy. The man said to the boy, &c."
Here the refers back to the man and boy just men-
tioned. Also, " The man ivJiom you saw."
3. Certain words which arc definite .in them-
selves, do not require this reference ; as, The
President. \ The horse, when the species is meant,'
&c.
123. An is used before vowel sounds, but drops
the n before consonant sounds ; as, An apjile, an
inkstand, an hour, a horse, a man.
124. A or an is used with singular nouns, the
with singular or plural.
Correct these exercises.
A apple. A hour. A ounce. An horse. An
high hill. A industrious man. An horse is an
useful animal. A inkstand was on an book. A,
honest man sold me a ox. A old coat is an use-
less garment. She has an handsome goat and an
ewe.
Articles modify nouns by these rules : —
Rule VII. 2 he -indefinite article modifies nouns in
the singular number.
Rule VIII. The definite article modifies nouns in
the singular ox plural number.
Insert articles, §c, here : —
cherry is pleasant fruit. honest
man is always . James saw hawk and
dove. ■ dove flew from hawk.
Milton poet Edward Black Prince,
48 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [125 — 182
. LESSON XXV.
THE VERB AND ITS CLASSES.
125. The verb is a word that asserts some-
thing. It is a word that by itself may form the
predicate of a proposition.
126. In respect to the proposition, verbs are
divided hit© two classes, Abstract ana Concrete.
. 127. Abstract verbs do not of themselves
form the predicates of propositions, but serve as
c o p u \ a s to connect the subject and predicate ;
as, " The apple is sweet." -"He seems well."
•v He appears cold."
Is when asserting being may form the predicate;
»d is" "I am."
128. Concrete verbs are those which may form
the predicates; as, " John runs." "Mary reads."
129. When I say " John runs " I express
a complete thought, but when I say " John rea'ds "
something else, a book or paper is necessary to
complete the thought.
130. Hence in construction there are two
.lasses of verbs; Complete and Incom-
plete, or Intransitive and Transi-
tive.
131. Complete or Intransitive verbs
ar<j those that do not require the addition of an
object to eomplcte the sense; as, "John runs."
-The rain falls."
132. Incomplete or Transitive verbs
are those that require the addition of an object to
complete the sense ; as, " He reads a paper, book,
or letter."
133 — 135] CLASSES OP VERBS. 49
133. Transitive means passing over ; in-
transitive,' not imssing over.
1. The incomplete verbs are called transitive,
because, physically speaking, the action passes
over from the actor to the object.
2. If we can place it or them after a verb and
make sense it is transitive, btherwise, it is intran-
sitive.
i
134. In transitive verbs the action or state
terminates upon some object; in intransitive
verbs, it terminates in the subject.
Hence tiansitive verbs are called objective; in-
transitive xerbsisiibjectivc.
135. A few intransitive, verbs require a modifi-
cation to complete the sense ; as, he behaves well •
or ill or he behaves himself. In the last case the
action still ends in the subject, and it belongs to
the subjective or intransitive verbs. They are
called reflexiveverbs.
They are such as behaves, bestir, bethink, boast,
delight, exercise, foresee, fret, repent, and vaunt.
1. Others are both reflexive and transitive : as
I examine mgself I examine him. They are such
as, examine, honor, purify, kill, praise, $c.
2. A few intransitives by a change of form be-
come transitive ; as, " The treenails. " " ITe fells
the tree," that is, causes it to fall. " It lies there. "
" lie lays it there," that is, causes it to lie. They
are called causative verbs.
* 3. Others do not change their form ; as, " The
ship sinks." " The pirate sink* the ship." " Ffre
farm wood." " The "wood burns." "The man
burns wood," that is, causes it to burn.
3
50 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ' [136 — 138
EXERCISES.
Model. James studies his book. Studies is 'a verb, it
asserts ; transitive, it requires an object to complete the
sense ; third, singular, to agree with James, by Kule II.
Kain falls. The suow melts. The warm sun
revives the earth. The trees put forth their leaves.
The flowers and grass spring up.
The woodman fells trees. He praise's himself.
Fire burns wood and coal. The robbers burned
the house.
LESSON XXVI.
THE VOICES.
136. Transitive verbs have two forms, called
the active and passive voices.
1ST. In the active voice the subject is re-
presented as acting upon some object ; as, "John
strikes William."
138. In the passive voice the subject is re-
presented as being acted up8n ; as, " "William is
struck by John/' The object of the active voice
becomes the subject of the passive.
1. The passiv<*»is~a convenient form of expres-
sion, when we wish to state what has been done
without naming the actor-; as, " John has been
struck."
2. Intransitive verbs do not admit the passive
Tioice, since they have no objget:
3. Some intransitive verbs are modified by
prepositions, so t^a't the verb and preposition are
138] voices. 51
treated as compounds. They then receive a pas-
sive voice ;. as, " They laughed at him." "He
was laughed at by them."
4. There are a few forms like "He is come/'
"He is gone," &c, that appear like a 'passive
voice of intransitive verbs.
5. They must be looked upcm as peculiar forms
of the present perfect tense. "lie is come" for
"He hat come," &c, which should be used in
their stead. See II. S. Gr.
Change th-ese sentences into passive forms : —
Model. John strikes the table. ThetableissfruofcbyJohn.
Fire burns wood. The rains refresh the earth.
Caesar conquered Gaul. The wind blew down
the tree. James studies grammar.
Change these to active forms : —
The enemy was defeated by Jackson. ..The
victory was gained by the Confederates. This
house was built by my father. The trees were
planted by the gardener.
EXERCISES.
Model. The bell was rung by me. Was rung is a verb .'
transitive ; passive voice, the object is used as the subject ;
third, singular to agree with bell, by Rule II.
John was injured by a fall. William conquered
England. Columbus discovered America. Africa
was first circum-navigated by the Portiigm
The British army was captured at Yorktown*.
The Confederates gained a great victory al M;»-
* The^ reasons should be assigned until, in (lie judgement
of theHea^her, thev are thoroughly understood*
r/2 ELEMENTARY -GRAMMAR. [139-— 141
Insert verbs here : —
Cattle — : — upon grass. The cow • milk,
butter, and cheese. The tree by my brother.
We — — our parents, and by them. The
tree by the wind.
LESSON XXVII,
THE MODES.
139/ Verbs assert action, or being in different
ways or manners.
When I say, " James runs," I assert something
positively, as actual.
When I say "I may go," " I can run/' I assert
something as possible.
When I say, "If he study,"! assert something
as doubtful or contingent.
When I say, "Go," "Come here," I assert
something as necessar}T in the form of a com-
mand.
140. These four forms of assertion, as actual,
possible •, contingent, and necessary, are * called
M odes. The word mode means manner.
They distinguish the manner of the action*or
state asserted.
14 1 . There are four modes, Indicative, Potential,
Subjunctive, and Imperative*
1. The I n d i c a t i v c is used to assert posi-
tively.
^.hool Grammar.
142—143] PARTICIPIALS. 53
2. The P o't e n t i it 1 asserts power, ability, or
necessity.
3. The S u bj u n c t i v e is used to assert some-
thing as uncertain, doubtful, or contingent.'
4. The Imperative mode expresses & com-
mand, exhortation, or entreaty.
The subjunctive is now rarely used.
The potential mode belongs to the proposition
rather than to the simple verb.
EXERCISES.
Model. The warm sun shines. Shines is a verb ; intran-
sitive; indicative mode, it asserts positively ; third, singular,
to agree with Sun, by Rule 11.
James goes to school. He is fond of his books.
The cold wind. blows. 'America was discovered
by Columbus. I may go.
Compose sentences containing these ivords : —
Study, run, play, make, strive, find, came,
sing.
LESSON XXVIII
THE PARTICIPIALS.
142. There are certain forms attached to nearly
all verbs, which do not assert and are therefore
not modes.
143.. They are* the I n fin i t i v c s , Pa r t i c i -
pies and Verbal noun.
'They are called. Participials. ParticipU and
participial mean partaking of.
• )4 ELEMENTARY 6 E AM MAR. [144—148
144. The infinitives and verbal noun
partake of the nature of the verb and noun ; the
p a j- 1 i.c i p 1 e s partake of the nature of the verb
and adjective.
145. The Infinitive is found in two forms :
1. First, the simple infinitive, without the
sign to. It is vised after may, can, must, will, shall,
let, make, have, need, do, dare, bid, help, see, hear,
feel.
2. Second, the infinitive with to or the pre-
positional infinitive.
3. For example the. Saxon infinitive of love -was
lufian-, while the supine was to lufigenne or to lufi-
enne. From this comes our English to love. This
form has nearly taken the place of the true infin-
itive.
4. Its proper name is the Supine.
146. The Participle like the adjective ex-
presses both the predicate and the attribute ; as
" The sun is rising.'' u The rising sun." ." The
man is learned." "The learned man."
1. Like a verb it denoted the completion or in-
completion of an action, and receives the same
modifiers that it does.
2. There are three "participles, the Imperfect
loving, the Perfect loved, and the Compound hav-
ing loved.
147. The Imperfect represents an action
or state as continuing; the Perfect, as fin-
ished ; the Compound as completed before
some other action or state.
148. The Verbal noun ends in ing and is
the name of an action.
149] censes. 55
1. It is distinguished from tlie participle in ing
by its ability to form the subject ol-a proposition,
which the participle cannot do ; as, " Writing, is
fatiguing."
2. It is'a participial, because it receives the
modifications of the verb ; as, " Writing letters is
a pleasant employment."
3. The verbal noun is closely connected
in meaning with the infinitive; as, "I love to
play." "Hove playing." " To play ispleasant,"
• or "playing is pleasant."
The infinitives are parsed by Rule XXI. Les-
- son XL VIII.
The participles are parsed by Rule XXIV.
EXERCISES.
Playing in the open air, is pleasant. Having
learned his lesson, he ran out to play. It is base
totelfan untruth. Seeing the multitudes, he
went up into a mountain.
Compose a slwrt exercise describing what you
saw oh your way to school.
• LESSOK XXIX.
THE TENSES.
SECTION I.
. 149. There are three divisions of time, p rec-
ent, past,- and future.
In each of these an action may be asserted as
indefinite, going on or progressive, and
completed.
56 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [150—152
He writes is indefinite. He is writing is progres-
sive. He has written is completed.
• 150. The forms .of the verb made use of to ex-
press these relations are called tenses.
1. The word tense means time. "
2. It denotes not only relations of time, but
also the completion or incompletion of the action
or state asserted.
151. There are nine such relations, which are
usually included in English under six tenses;
Present } Pastx Future, Present Perfect, Past Per-
fect, Future Perfect. ■ v
1. The Present, Past, and Future express'inde- .
finite action ; the others express completed action. >
2. Progressive action is expressed by joining
the Imperfect participle to the lorms of the verb
be or am.
152. Our tenses are divided into two classes,
•simple and compound.
1. The simple tenses are the Present and Past.
2. The compound tenses are of two kinds, those
formed with have, and those formed with shall
and will.
3. The first are the Present and Past Perfect ;
as, "I have learned," •' I had learned."
4. The second are the Future and Future Per-
fect.
5. There are also compound forms, composed
of the auxiliary do and its past tense did, which
are used to express emphasis; as, "Ido learn,"
a I did learn. "
153 — 155] TENSES. 57
THE PRESENT TENSE.
153. The Present Tense denotes present
time. 4 ' «
1. The simple form is indefinite and asserts
what is true and customary; as, u Vice produces
misery." " He writes well," that is, "lie is ac-
customed to do it."
2. It sometimes denotes a progressive action ;
as, "He breathes slowly."
3. The progressive form asserts what is now
going on ; as, " He is writing," "I am studying
my lesson." * •
4. I (ty write is the emphatic form.
THE PAST TENSE.
154. The Past tense denotes past time.
1. The simple form represents an action mere-
ly as past; as, "I wrote." "lie studied."
2. The progressive form represents an action
as going on, at some pas^t time mentioned; as,
aIfe was writing, when we came."
155. The Past tense is formed in two ways,, by
adding a syllable, as in leant, learned; and by
changing the yowcI of the present, as in sing, sang.
1. The second, by recent scholars, is. called the
strong form, and the first is called the weak.
2. The Past of weak verbs is formed by ad-
ding d, t, or ed, to the present ; as learn-ed, love-d;
bend, ben(d)t ; seek, sough-t ; buy, lough-L
3.. The Present and Past are the only simple
tenses, and strictly speaking, the only tenses of
3b
58 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [15*6
the English verb. The other relations of time are
-* -' ■
expressed by means of helping words or auxiliaries.
EXERCISES. fr
. Model. Mary plays well. Plays is a .verb, intransitive,
indicative mode, present tense, it denotes present, time, third
singular to agree with Mary, by Rule II.
Thomas reads his book. Dido founded Car-
thage. Gentle manners arc winning. The boys
were playing in the streets. William listened
attentively. The village master taught his little
school. Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon,
and enters Italy. "When he comes, we will re-
turn.
Compose six sentences containing verbs in the
present tense. Also six containing past tenses.
LESSON XXX.
SECTION II.
■0
THE COMrOUND TENSES.
1 st. W i th shall and will.
THE FUTURE.
156. The Future Tense denotes future
time.
1. It is composed of shall and will and the sim-
ple infinitive of any verb.
2. The simple form asserts merely that an ac-
tion will take place hereafter ; as, "I shall* write."
3. The progressive form asserts that an action
will be going on at some future time ; as, " I shall
be writing, when he arrives."
157 — 160] COMPOUND TENSES. 59
157. There are two forms of the Future, the
diet ice and the promissive.
1. Shall in the first person and. will in the
second and third simply foretell, and form the
predictive^
2. Will in the first person, and shall in the-
second and third refer to the will of the speaker,
and form the promissive future.
2d. Compound Tenses with have.
158. They are the Present F e r f c c t , the
Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect
tenses.
Tlacy are called perfect tenses since their action
is completed at the time nnfhtioncd, or implied.
THE PRESENT PERFECT.
1-50. The Present P e r f c c t deno tes, first, a
completed action ; second, an action completed in
time connected with the present.
1. When time is referred to it must he connect-
with the present, otherwise it is completely inde-
finite.
2. Hence it cannot he nsed in reference to any
particular past time. I cannot say, " I have
written yesterday," hut **I wrote yesterday."
3. The progressive form denotes an action go-
ing on in past time connected with the present ;
as, "lie has hcen writing to-day."
THE PAST PERFECT.
160. Tiie Past Perfect Tense denotes an
action finished before some past time mentioned ;
as, "I had written the letter, before he
60 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, £161— -164
1. In its form ii isthe-pasl tense of Ajaite.togeth-
with the participle.
2. The progressive form denotes an action or
taiv goin'g on before some past time ; as, "He
had been writing before I came."
TUE FUTURE TERFECT.
161. The Future Perfect Tense denotes
an action or state that will be completed before
some other action mentioned; as, "I shall have
written my letter, before the mail. arrives."
The progressive form denotes an action or state
going on before some future time : as, "lie will
have been traveling a week to-morrow." »
162. SIGNS OF THE TENSES. #
Present. The simple form of the verb. In the
emphatic form do.
Past. In strong verbs, a change in the vowel ;
in weak verbs ed ; in the emphatic form did.
Future. Shall and will. Shalt and wilt.
Pres. Perf. Have, hast, has.
Past Perf. Had, hadst.
Put. Perf. Shall or will have, shalt or wilt- have.
1G3. A Synopsis is given by naming the
first person singular in each tense.
. 164. SYNOPSIS OF LEARN. . '
Simple Form. Progressive Form.
I 'resent, I learn, I am learning.
» Past, I learned, I was learning.
Future, I shall or will learn, I shall or will be learning,
Pres. Perf. I have learned, I have been learning.
Past Perf I had learned, I had been learning.
Fut. Perf I shall have learned, I shall have been learning.
Give a synopsis of love, study, play, desire.
164*—165] COMPOUND TENSES.. ,61
EXERCISES.
Model. He has written a letter. Has written is a verb,
it atserts ; transitive, it requires an object ; indicative mode,
it asserts positively ; present perfect tense, it denotes an ac-
tion completed at the present time ; third, singular to a
with he, by Rule II.
James' father has come. I have heard the re-
port oiicc or twice. Thomas had gone heforc the
stage came. The messenger will have reached
him by to-morrow.
Compose six ^sentences containing verbs in the
present perfect tense ; six containing tli-c past
perfect tense, and six containing the future" per-
fect.
LESSON XXXI.
%. TEN'SES OF THE POTENTIAL.
164. The six tenses belong only to the indh-.i .
live mode, since that, only, asserts positively.
The tenses do not have the same. definite mean
i ng in the other modes.
" 165 v The Potential lias foUr forms :
Present, Past, Present Perfect,
Past Perfect;* as, "I may go," ^ I might
go,". " I may have gone," a I might have gone."
They are, in their origin, indicative tenses of
the verbs, may, can, must, (shall) should, and (will)
would, followed by the simple infinitives.
For an explanation of these forms see " High School
Grammar."
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [166 — 1T1
166. In respect to time these tenses are indefi-
nite, especially in the Present and Past forms.
167. The Present is composed of the pres-
ent indicative -of way, can, must, and the present
infinitive.
It implies present or future time, -according to
the modifying words ; as, " I can go now." "I
may go to-morrow." ' *
168. The Pa s t is composed of the past in-
dicative of may, can, will, shall, (might, could,
wouldjjand should) and the present infinitive.
It implies present, past, or future time ; as,
^Present, u I would go now if it were possible."
Past, " I could not go last year." "He said last
week I might go yesterday." Future, "You
should by all means return next week."
169. The Present Perfect is composed
of the present tenses of may, can, must, and the
perfect infinitive.
It implies that an action may have taken place
in past time ; as, " James may have returned."
170. The Past Perfect is composed of the
past tenses of may, can, will, and shall and the
perfect infinitive.
Jt implies that it was possible that an action
might have taken place in past time ; as, " He
might have studied." " He could have returned."
171. The signs of the Present are may, can,
mast.
The signs of the Past are might, coilld, would,
and should.
The signs of the Present Perfect, may have, can
have, must have.
•172—1731 TENSES, AC. 63
*
The signs of the Past Perfect, might have, could
have, <J'c. '. .
172. SYNOPSIS OP LEARN in the potential.
Present, I may, can, or must learn, or he learn-
ing.
Past, I might, could, would, or should learn, or
he learnings •
Pres. <£*erf.i I may, can, or must have learned,
or been learning.
Past Per/., I might, could, would, or should
lulve learned, or been learning.
EXERCISES.
He may come to-morrow. Y^u may read .the
second chapter. His employer said ho might-
Susan might learn, if she would study. He may
have come. The work might have been done, if
lie had been more industrious.
Complete these sentences : —
The tree overturned. You and then
you out to pfcty. William a
scholar, if he had been industrious. The train
arrived.
Write a short account of your last ride.
LESSON XXXII.
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE, IMPERATIVE, kC. .
173. The Subjunctive mode has two fori
called the Present and Past tenses.
1. It is found in the present and past tenses of
to be, and in the present tense of other verbs.
64 [ENTARY GRAMMAR. -[174 — 176
2. Ii i.- usetl only in conditional sentences after
though, unless,' except, whether, and lest.
3. It has also been used after some of the con
j « active adverbs ; as, " Until the day dawn and
l he day star arise"
4. The Present denotes a future condition ;
as, u If he learn " means " if he shall learn," and
lias been called the Future c o n t i ji g c n t
tense.
5. The indicative form, "if he learns,'#is now
almost universally used in its place.
6. The Past denotes a supposition, or hypo-
thesis, in present time which is known not to be
real ; as, " If he were studious, he would learn,"
but he is not studious.
174. The tensef of the Subjunctive arc a Pres-
# ent, or Contingent Future and a past or Hypothetical,
" Contingent Future, If I be. If I learn, if thou
learn, if he- learn.
Hypothetical or Past. If I were. It has no
reference to past time.
175. The Imperative has only the Present
tense and second person.
1. It expresses a command; as, "Love thou ;"
an exhortation, " Come ye to the waters;" an
entreaty, " Return O Lord;" a wish, " O king
live forever," ".farewell," "good-bye;" permis-
sion, " Qo in peace."
2. It agrees with thou or you expressed or un-
derstood.
176. The Infinitive has two forms. Pres-
• e n t , To love ; and Perfect, To have loved.
177—180] TENSES, AC; 65
1. The first expresses an action or state indefi-
nitely without regard to time ; as, " lie desires
to learn." " Eager to study." /'He desired to
write. u He will be ready to go."
• 2. The second expresses a completed action or
state without refereuce to time ; as, " Ho is said
to have done well."
3. The leading verb expresses the time, while
the infinitive modifies it like a noun or a clause ;
as, " He reads to, learn." " He reads that he may
learn." • *
177. The Participle has three forms, the
Imperfect, Loving; the Perfect, Loved;
and the Compound, Having Loved.
Transitive verbs have, besides these three par-
ticiples, three corresponding to them in the pas-
sive voice ; as, active, loving, loved, having loved ;
passive, being loved, loved, having been loved.
178. The imperfect participle ends in ing, and
denotes an action or state continuing in the time
of the leading verb; as, "lie was reading" "lie
entered singing."
179. The perfect participle implies an action or
state completed.
In weak or regular verbs it ends in ed ; in strong
verbs it generally ends in en.
180. The compound of the perfect denotes an.
action or state finished before some other ; as
w Having learned my lesson, I went to school."
EXERCISES.
If it were not so, I would have told you. Ye
will not come unto me; that ye may have life.
fifi
MENTAKY Ifl^AMMAR. [181 — 1*2
Kulton is said to have invented the steam-boat.
John strives to improve. Susan loves to read."
Bring me those new books. I saw a man plough-
in the fields.
Complete these sentences hy inserting infinitives and
participles:
While I was in the grove, I heard a bird
. I saw a horsey in the pasture. Mary
is by all. Susan tries . I ani going
a letter. — —his lesson, he came up
it. He in the garden. *
Compose short sentences containing these words :
Studying, reading, singing, to study, to play,
written, having heard, walking.
. LESSON XXXIII.
THE REGULAR AND IRREGULAR OR STRONG AND
WEAK VERBS.
181. T 'ho principal parts of a verb are the Pres-
ent and Past tenses ; indicative and the Per-
fect Participle; as, leqrn, learned, learned;
Bing, sang, sung.
From these the. other parts of the verb are
formed.
182. There are two ways of forming these prin-
cipal parts, and therefore two classes of verbs.
1. One claiss adds a syllable to the present
tense, the* other changes the vowel ; as, learn,
learnt, learned; snig, sang, swng.
2. They are commonly called Regular and
Irregular, and are thus defined :
L83— 189] vmut 67
i
183. The Regular verbs actd d ov ed to term
their principal parts.
184. The Irregular verbs do not ad <l or ed t<>
form their principal parts.
185. The later and more correct division is into
Strong and Weak verbs.
1. Verbs that change the vowel are called '
strong, because they form their parts within them-
selves.
2. Verbs that add a syllable arc called weak,
because they require an addition from without.
3. They add d, t, or ed, to form their principal
parts.
AUXILIARY VERBS. % .
180. Do, be, have, may, can, mast, will and shall,
arc called auxiliary verbs; because by their help
the other verbs are conjugated.
187. Do, be, have and will, are also -used
principal verbs.
188. The conjugation of the verb is the regu-
lar arrangement of its voices, mode*, tens*1
numbers, and persons. . #
189C Will, shall, mag, can and must arc thug
conjugated.
SINGULAR.
\ si per* 2d per. 3<7
I. Thou, He;
., Will, wilt, will :
Would, wouldest, would
/Vcs., Shall, eh alt, ehall :
Past, Should, shouldest, should; should, should, should.
., May, ma; may; may, ma may.
Might, might est might: might, might, might.
., Can, canst, can ; can. < an. can.
Fast, Could, couldest, could ; could, could, could.
Pres.t Must, mu t; must, must, mud.
PLURAL.
St per.
2d per.
fid per.
We,
will.
would
shall,
You,
will,
, would,
shall,
They.
will.
would.
shall.
68 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [190 '
EXERCISES.
Model. JIc had studied. Had studied is a verb, it asserts ;
regular (or weak) it adds cd to form its past tense; transi-
tive, it requires an ooject; indicative, mode, it asserts posi-
tively; past perfect tense, it denotes an action completed
before some other action; third, singular, to agree with he,
by Rule II.
James has come. The birds will sing. Samuel
will have recited his lesson before you return.
Have you heard the news ? My father came yes-
terday. The stage has gone. Will you come
with me.
Compose sentences containig these words :
Flowers, ha^come, will be delighted, Will go,
was heard, is growing, learned, blooming.
Compose different sentences upon the same
words. '
LESSOR XXXIV.
CONJUGATION OF .THE VERB BE OR AM.
190. The verb be is a defective verb made up
of the verbs, am9 be and was.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Present, am. Past, was. Perfect Part., been.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. * - • PturaL
1st Person, I am, 1st Perron, We arc;
2d Person, Thou art, . 2d Person, You are,
3d Person, He is; 3d Person, They arc.
190] VERBS. 69
TAST TENSE.
Singular* 'Plural,
1 .1 was, 1 We were,
2 Thou wast, 2 You were,
3 He was ; 3 They were.
FUTURE TENSE PREDICTIVE.
Singular. Fhral.
1 I shall be, 1. We shall be.
2 Thou wilt be, 2 You will be,
3 He will be \ 3 They will be.
FUTURE TENSE PROMISSIVE.
Singular, ■ Plural.
X I will be, 1 We will be,
2 Thou shalt be, 2 You shall be,
a He shall be j 3 They shall be.
JPRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1 I have been, < 1 We have been,
2 Thou hast been, 2 You have been,
3 He has been; 3 They have been
PAST PERFECT TENSE. ,
Singular. Plural. #
1 I bad been, 1 We had been.
2 Thou hadst been, 2 You had been.
'■> He had been; 3 They had been.
JURE PERFJX'T TEN#E PREDICTIVK.
Singular. Plural.
1 I shall have^een, 1 We shall have been
2 Thou wilt have been, 2 You will have been,
3 He will have been; 3 They will have been.
f$ ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [190
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE PROM1SSYE.
Singular. Plural*
1 I will have been, 1 We will have been,
2 Thou shalt have been, 2 You shall have been,
M* lie shall have been; 3 They shall have been.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT.
Signs — may, can, must. Inflect with each.
Singular Phiral.
1 I may be, 1 We may be,
2 Thou mayest be, 2 You may be,
3 He may be; • 3 They may be.
PAST.
S^gns — might, could, would, should.
Singular. Plural.
1 I might be, 1 We might, be,
2 Thou mightst be, ' 2 You might be,
:; He might be; 3 They might be.
PRESENT PERFECT.
Signs — may have, nan have, must have
♦ " Singular. Plural.
\ I may have been, 1 We may have been,
2 rl*iou mayst have been, 2 You may have been,
3 He may have been; 3 They may have been.
PAST PERFECT.
Signs — might have^ould have, would 'have, should
haw.. ~
Singular. Plural.
1 I might have been, 1 We migjit have been,
2 Thou mightst have been, 2 You might have been,
3 He might have been; 3 They might have been
190] VERBS. n
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
CONTINGENT FUTURE OR PRESENT.
« Sin yii -lor.
Plural
1 If I be, . ••
1 If we be,
2 If thou be,
2 If you be,
3 If he be;
3 If they be.
IIYPOTIIETTCAL
FORM OR PAST.
1 If I were,
1 If we were,
2 If thou wert,
2 If thou were,
3 If he were ;
3 If they were.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
* Sinaulur.
: Plural*
2 Be thou or you; 2 Be ye or you.
t INFINITIVES.
Present, To be, Perfect) To have been.
PARTICIPLES.
tmperf.) Being. Perf.^ Been. Comp.: Baying been
8YNOP6
Indicative. Potential.
Present^ lam. Present, Imay,canormuM
► Past, I WJ Past, I might be.
Future, I shall or will be Pres. /'//.. I may h
/'its. Per/t} I have been. Past /'</•/'.. I might haveb< - □
Past Perf^ I had been.
Put. !><>■/., I shall or will
have been.
I HJUNCTIVX.
Present, tf II Past, If I were.
72 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR/ [191
IMPERATIVE.
Singular. Plural.
2 He thou. 2 Be you. .
INFINITIVES.
Present, To be/ Perfect, To have been.
PARTICIPLES.
Imperf., Being. Perf., Been. Comp., Having been.
EXERCISES.
The warm sun is pleasant. The prospect was
a delightful one. The industrious youth will be
respected. I have been young, but now am old.
The day may be rainy. lie might have been re-
spected. Be cheerful and hopeful.
LESSON XXXV.
191. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE.
. PRINCIPAL PARTS...
- Present, love. Past, loved. Perfect Part., loved.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.. , '
Singular. Plural.
1 I love, ' .1 We love, •
2 Thou lovest, 2 You love,
3 He love* j 3 They love.
190]
VERBS.
PAST TENSE. -
•
Singular.
1 1 loved,
Plural.
1 We loved,
2 Thou lovedst,
2 You loved,
3 He loved ;
• J They loved.
73
FUTURE TENSE.
Let the pupil give the predict I re and promissive forms
separately. „ .
' Singula/1. Plural.
L 1 shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love,
2 Thou shalt or wilt love, 2 You shall or will love,
3 He shall or willlove; 3 They shall or .will love.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
/Singular. * Plural.
1 I have loved, 1 We have loved,
2 Thou hast loved, 2 You have loved,
3, He has loved ; 3 They have loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1 I had loved, 1 We had loved,
2 Thou hadst loved, 2 You had loved,
:> lie had loved ; .'> They had loved:
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. 4 Plural.
1 I shall or will have loved, 1 We shall or will have loved
2 Thou shalt or wilt have 2 You shall or will have
loved, loved,
3 He shall or will have ;; They shall or will .have
. loved; |0vefl
4
74 < ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR! [190
1 . POTENTIAL MODE. '
PRESENT.
Singular. - Plural.
1 I may love, 1 .We may love,
2 Thou mayst love, 2 You may love,
3 He may love; 3 They may love.
PAST.
Singular. Plural.
1 I might love, 1 Wc might love,
2 Thou mightst love, 2 You might love,
3 He might love; 3 They might love.
PRESENT PERFECT.
Singular. Plural,
1 I may have loved, 1 We may have loved,
2 Thou mayst have loved, 2 "Jjjjou may have loved,
3» He may have loved j 3 They may have loved.
PAST PERFECT.
*
Singular. - • Plural.
1 I might have loved, 1 We might have loved,
2 Thou mightsthave loved, 2 You might have loved,
3 He might have loved ; 3 They might have loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
CONTINGENT FUTURE OR PRESENT.
Singular. • Plural.
1 If I love, 1 If we love,
2 If thou love, 2 If you love,
3 If he love • ' 3 If they love.
The present is the only conditional form that differs from
the indicative except the past of be or am.
190] VERBS.
IMPKKATIVK MODE ' 4
Simjithtr. I 'I and.
2 Love thou or you ; 2 Love ye or you.
INFINITIVES.
Pregert t, To love ; Perfect, To have loved.
TARTICfPLES.
Tmperf^ Loving. Per/., Loved. Comp.x Having loved.
Let the pupil write or give a synopsis of this
verb.
Like love conjugate learn, study.
EXERCISES.
Model. lie may have loved. May have loved is a verb,
it asserts, regular or weak, it adds ed to form the past tense ;
transitive, it requires an object; potential, it implies possi-
bility ; present perfect, it asserts what may have taken
place; third, singular to agree with he, by Kule II. '
I learn my lesson by bard study. James had
played until he was tired. We play ball after we
have learned our lessons. Have you heard the
tram ? If he studies well this session, he can
enter college this fall.
Compose sentences* containiny these Word,
Learns, studies, has played, may read, will
come, had heard, might have returned, shall go.
Require various sentences to be formed upon the
same ivord.
76 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. , [191—192
LESSON XXXVI;
PROGRESSIVE FORM OF LEARN.
\{M. The progressive form is conjugated by
inkling the Imperfect Participle of any verb to the
forms of be or am.
192. Synopsis of Learn, Progressive Form.
INDICATIVE MODE. POTENTIAL MODE. .
Present^ I am learning. I may be learning.
Pasty I was learning. 1 might be learning.
Future, -I shall or will be
learning.
Pres. Per/?) I have been I may have been learning.
learning.
Pdsi Per/., I had been I might have been learning.
learning.
Future Per/., 1 shall Jhave
been learning.
i
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Contingent Fjitnre or Present, if I be learning.
Hypothetical or Past, If I were learning.
IMPERATIVE M01>E.
Singular. • Pbural.
2 Be thou learning. 2 Be ye learning.
INFINITIVES.
Present, To be learning. Per/., To have been learning
Conjugate thus : I am learning, Thou art learn-
ing, He is learning, We are learning,'&c.
193] PASSIVE VOICE OF LOVE. 77
EXERCISES: *
Model. If he learn, he will please us. {If he) learn is a
verb, it asserts ; regular OY-weak it adds ed to form the pa^t
tense ; transitive, it requires an object ; subjunctive mode, it
expresses something doubtful or uncertain ; present tense,
in its form ; third, singular to agree with he, by Rule II.
If it rain to-morrow I cannot go, If it were
he, lie would come to see us. Come to me and
bring me your book. I saw a boy reading his
book. The trees were bending under their load .
of fruit. The girls are playing iii the garden.
Complete these sentences :
. The farmer his field. The class the
last Lesson wclL The good man his neigh-
bor. The guilty ' • no accuser. « may
have gone . — — will be .
Point out the properties of sli\ apple.
LESSON XXX¥IL
THE PASSIVE VOICE OF LOVE.
193. The Passive voifcc is formed by adding
the perfect participle of any transitive verb to the
forms of the verb be or am.
INDICATIVE MO I
* -.4 "*
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
mural
I am loved,
1 AVe are loved.
Thou art loved.
2 You are loved,
He i \o\ ■
3 They, axe loved.
78 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR . [193
PAST TENS!-:.
Singular. Plural.
1 I was loved, 1 We were loved,
2 Thou wast loved, 2 You were loved,
3 Tie was loved ; * 3 They were loved.
FUTURE TENSE, PREDICTIVE FORM.
• * Singular. t Plural.
1 I shall be'loved, 1 We shall be loved,
2 Thou wilt be loved, 2 You will be loved,
3 He will be loved; 3 They will be loved.
- "FUTURE TENSE, PRO-MISSIVE FORM. <
Singular. Plural.
1 I will be loved, 1 We will be loved, .
2 Thou shalt be loved, 2 You shall be loved,
■*i He shall be loved; 3 They shall be loved.
PRESENT PERFECT TEN si
Singular. Plural.
1 I have been loved, 1 We have been loved,
2 Thou hast been loved, 2 You have been loved,
'■'> He has been loved; 3 They have been loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. » Plural,
1 I had been loved, 1 We had been loved,
2 Tliou hadst been loved, 2 You had been loved,
3 He had been loved; "3 They had been loved.
I I'TURE FERFHCT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1 I shall have been loved, 1 We shall have been loved^
2 Thou wilthave been loved, 2 You will -have been loved,
o He will have been loved; 8 They will have been loved
193] PASSIVE VOICE OF LOVE. 79
*
POTENTIAL MODE,
PRESENT.
Singular. Plum/.
1 I may be loved, 1 We may be loved,
2 Thou mayst be loved, 2 You may be loved,
3 He may be loved ; 3 They may be loved
TAST.
Singular. . Plivral.
1 I might be loved, 1 We might be loved,
2 Thou mightst be loved, 2 You might be loved,
3 He might be loved \ 3 They might be loved.
\ PRESENT PERFECT.
Singular. Plural.
1 I may have been loved, 1 We may have been loved,
2 Thou mayst have been ( 2 You may have been loved,
loved,
3 He may have been loved; 3 They may have been loved.
. PAST PERFECT.
Singular. Plural.
1 I might have been loved, 1 We might have been loved,
2 Thou mightst have been 2 You might have been
loved, loved,
3 He might have been 3 They might have been
. . loved ; loved.
SU l'.UTNCTIVE MO I
PRESENT.
Singular. Plural,
1 If I be loved, I If we be loved,
2 If thou be loved, 'J If you be loved,
€ if he be loved; 3 If they be loved.
80 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [193
%
PAST.
Singular. Plural.
1 I wc were loved, 1 If I were loved,
2 If thou wert loved, 2 If you were loved,
3 If he were lovccf; 3 If they were loved.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Singular. Plural.
2 Be thou or you loved. 2 Be ye or you loved.
INFINITIVE.
Present] To be loved. Perfect, To have been loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Imperfect, Being loved. Perfect, Loved. Compound,
Having been loved.
• Conjugate in like manner, learn, place, teach.
EXERCISES.
Model. I am praised. Am praised is a verb, it asserts;
regular or weak, * it forms its past tense by adding ed;
tr-ansitive, it requires an object ; passive voice, the object- is
used as subject, indicative, present, first singular to agree
with 7, by Rule IJ.
You are loved. They are blessed. We were
esteemecl. James was accused. He has heard
the news. She had learned /her lesson. They
* The teacher may use the tzxm&weak or regular a8 tie may
desire. The terms regular and irregular, though long used,
are not scientifically correct and are objectionable. I prefer
to follow the highest authorities in the use of weak and
strong. • *
194]
THE VERB TAKE.
81
'will beloved. The report' may have been false
The book can not have been returned. T am
pleased with my situation.
Oimpose sentences containing these words :
Is praised, was esteemed, have been heard, w i
loved, are made, may be fought, might be found.
LESSON XXXV] II.
194. CONJUGATION OF THE STRONG VERB TAKK.
PRINCIPAL PARTS."
6
Present, take. Past, took. Perf. Participle, taken,
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT.
Singular.
1 I take,
2 Thou takest,
8 He takes ;
Indicative.
1 I took,
2 Thou tookest,
3 He took ;
Singular
I I shall take.
3b
Plural
1 We take i
2 You take,
8 They take
PAST.
Potential.
1 We took,
2 You took,
3 They took.
ii n Rfe.
Plural.
1 We shall take.
* 82 • ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [194
PRESENT PERFECT.
* •
Singular. Plural.
1 I have token. 1 We have taken.
PAST PERFECT.
Singular. Plural ■
1 I had taken. 1 We had taken.
FUTURE PERFECT.
Singular. Plural.
1 I shall have taken. 1 We shall have taken.
Potential mode.
%
- PRESENT.
Singular. Phtral.
1 I may, can , or must take. 1 We may, can, or must take.
* • *
PAST.
Singular. 9 Plural.
I I might, could, would, or 1 We might, could, would,
should take. or should take.
PRESENT PERFECT.
Singular. Plural.
1 I may, can, or must have 1 We may, can, or must
taken. have taken.
PAST PERFECT.
«
Singular. Plural.
I i might, could, would, or 1 We might, could, would
■hould have taken. or should have taken.
195] THE VERB TAKE. *83
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT.
0
Singular. • Plural.
1 If I take, If thou take, &c. 1 If we take.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Singular. Plural.
2 Take thou or you. - 2 Take ye or you..
INFINITIVES.
Pretend, To take. ' Perfect, To have taken.
PARTICIPLES.
LniperJ\, Taking. Pei'f., Taken, Comp., Having taken.
Give a synopsis in full of this Yerb.
EXERCISES.
I liave been taking a rest. He has gone.
Mary was singing. John may have taken it.
Joyous spring has come again. Have yrou for-
gotten what I told you. Whoever can do this
will deserve a reward.
Compose sentences containing these words :
Bright, moon, runs, battle, pale; fight, sing,
may write, whoever, praise.
lesson xxxix:
INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS.
195. Learn is conjugated interrogatively as
follows :
84
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [196 — 197
INDICATIVE.
Present, Do I learn?
Past, Did 1 learn ?
Future, Shall I learn ?
Pres. Per. , Have I learned ?
Past Per., Had I learned ?
Fut. Per., Shall I have
• learned?
Also, am I learning? Was I learning? &q.
196. Verbs are conjugated negatively as fol-
lows : —
POTENTI'AL.
Present, May I learn ?
Past, Might I learn ?
Pres. Per., May I haye
.learned?
Past Per., Might I have
learned ?
Indicative.
Potential.
Present, I.love not, am not Present, I may not love.
loving, do not love. Past, I might not love. -
Past, I loved not, was not Pres. /'erf., I may not have
loving, did not love. loved.
Future, I shall not love, Past' Per/., I might not
be loving. have loved.
Pres. Per/., I have not loved.
Past Per/., I had not loved.
Fut. Per f., I shall not have
loved.
Suhjviiei,, Infinite
Present, If I do not love. Present, Not to love.
Per/ect, Not to have loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Imperfect, Not loving. Perfect^ Not loved. Compound,
Not having loved.
197. NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE FORMS. .
Do I not love? Did I not love? Shall I not
love ? May I not love ? Might I not love ? &c.
198} IRREGULAR VERBS:
EXERCISES.
Will you come with me ? Were you listening ?
Is he not at home ? Will your father not come ?
Might he not have learned ? Did you not hear
the news ? He has not arrived.
Write several short sentences describing a horse-
LESSON XL.
THE " IRREGULAR " VERBS.
198. The Irregular verbs, as commonly given,
contain several distinct classes.
1st. The strong verbs which form their past tense by
changing the vowel of the present and do not add f,d, or
"/. Their participle past regularly ended in ni, which
is now often wanting.
2d. Those which now form their past tense in cJ, but
their participle in en. They were formerly pure st]
verbs.
•id. Those that have both a strong and weak form.
4th. Those that both change the vowel and add i or </.
as seek, wwjli-t ; bring, brouyh-t ; sell, sol-d,
5th. Some Defective verbs ; as, i
For convenience in reference they will be given to-
gether. Those that add a termination t<> fornfl the |
tense must be parsed as- wc a k ; those thai do no!
strong.
Verbs are naturally divided into Strong, W<
Infective verbs k ill
80
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
[199
The third class will be marked B.; the fourth,
W.\ the fifth D.\ Forms not now used are put
in italics.
199. LIST OF VERBS COMMONLY CALLED IRREGULAR.
PRESENT.
PAST.
PER. PARTTCIPL.
Abide,
abode.
abode.
Am, D"
was,
been.
Arise,
arose,
arisen.
Awake,'
awoke, R.
awaked.
Bear, to hring forth bore, bare,
born.
Bear, to carry.
bore, bare,
borne.
Beat,
beat,
beaten, beat,
Begin,
sbegan,
begun.
Beseech.
besought, W.
besought,
Bid,
bid, bade,
bidden, bid,
Bind.
bound,
bound,hoimdeii,rare
Bite. .
bit,
bitten, bit.
Bleed,
bled,
bled.
Blow,
blew,
blown. .
Break.
broke, brake,
broken.
Bring,
brought, "W.
brought,
Burst,
burst,
burst.
Buy,
bought, W.
bought, '
Cast,
cast,
cast,
Catch..
caught, W.
caught,
Chide,
. chid,
chidden, chid.
Choose.
chose,
chosen.
Cleave,
"cleaved, clave.
cleaved.
Cleave,
clave, cleft.
cloven.
Cling,
clung,
clung,
Clothe,
, clad, R.
clad.
Come,
s came,
come.
Cost,
cost,'
cost.
Crow,
crew, R.
crown.
199]
IRREGULAR VERBS.
87
PRESENT.
PAST.
PER. PARTICI
Cut,
• cut,
cut.
Dare,
durst, R.
durst.
Dig,
dug. R.
dug.
Do,
did,
done.
Draw,
drew.
drawn.
Drink,
drank,
drunk.
Drive,
drove, (hare
driven.
Eat,
ate, eat,
eaten.
Fall,
fell, '
fallen.
Feed,
fed,
fed.
Fight,
fought, W.
fought,
Find,
found,
found.
Fling, '-
flung,
flung.
Fly,
flew,
flown.
Forget,
forgot.
forgotten .
Forsake,
forsook,
forsaken. *
Freeze,
froze, .
frozen.
Get,
got, gat,
gotten, got.
Give,
gave,
given.
Go,D.
went,
gone.
Grave,
graved, grovt
graven..
Grind,
ground,
ground.
Grow,
grew,
grown.
Hang,
hung, JR.
hung.
Heave, »
hove, R.
hoven.
Hew,
hewed.
hewn.
Hide,
hid,
hidden, hid.
Hit,
hit, R.
hit.
Hold,
held,
held, holden
Hurt,
hurt,
hurt.
Knit,
knit, R,
knit.
Know,
knew,
known
Lade,
laded,
laden.
88
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
[19$
PRESENT.
PAST.
PER. PARTI C J
Let,
let,
ief.
Lie,
lay.
lain.
Light,
lit, R.
lit.
Make,
made.
made.
Mefct,
met,
met. .
Mow,
mowed,
mown.
Put, '
* •
put,
put.
Quit,
quit,
quit. •
Read .
read, (pron. red, )
read, {red.)
Rid,
rid,
rid,
Ride,
rode,
ridden, rid.
Ring,
rang, rung,
rung.
Rise,
rose.
risen:
Rive,
rived,
riven.
Hun,
'ran,
run. /
Saw,
sawed,
sawn.
See,
saw,
seen.
Seek,
sought. W.
sought,
Seethe,
sod,
sodden.
Sell,
sold, W.
sold,
Set,
set, •
set.
Shake,
shook,
shaken.
Shape, .
shaped,
shapen.
Shave,
shaved,
shaven.
Shear,
sheared,
shorn, *
Shed,
shed,
shed.
Shine,
shone, R. .
shone.
Shoot,
shot,
shot.
Show,
showed, shew,
4ft
shown.
Shrink,
shrunk, shrank,
shrunk,
Shut,
shut,
shut,
Sing,
sung, scwg,
sung.
Sink,
sunk, sank,
. sunk.
190]
IRREGULAR VERBS.
80
PRESENT.
PAST.
PER. PARTICIPLE
Sit,
sat, sate.
sat, sittcn.
Slay,
slew,
slain.
Slide,
slid, shoe.
slidden.
Sling,
siting, slang ,
slung.
Slink,
slunk,
slunk.
Slit,
slit, &l$t, R.
slit.
Smite,
'smote,
smitten.
Sow,
sowed,
sown.
Speak,
spoke, spake,
spoken.
Speed,
sped,
sped.
Spin,
spun, sj)ait:
spun .
Spit,
spit, spat.
spit.
Spread,
spread,
spread.
Spring,
sprang, sprung,
sprung.
Stand,
stood,
stood.*
Steal,
stole, stale,
stolen.
Stick,
stuck, stack.
stuck.
Sting,
stung, stawj.
• stung.
Stink,
stunk, stank.
stunk.
Strew,
strewed,
strown.
Stride,
strode,
stridden.
Strike,
struck, strake^
stricken, struck
String,
strung, Strang^
strung.
Strive,
strove.
striven
Strow,
st rowed.
str< ■
Swear,
swore, swart)
SWOTIk
Swell,
swelled, sv)
vollen.
Swim,
:in. swum,
swum.
Swing,
.swung. swang)
SWI!
Take,
took,
takcu.%
Teach.
taught, W.
taught.
Tear,
tore, tart)
torn.
Tell,
told W
ild
90
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR,
[200
PRESENT.
PAST.
PER. PA
Think,
thought, W,
thought.
Thrive,
throve,
thriven.
Throw,
threw,
thrown.
Thrust,
thrust.
thrust.
Tread,
trod,.
trodden.
Wax,
waxed, ' ■ *
waxen.
Wear,
wore,
worn.
Weave .
wove,
woven.
Wed,
wed, E.
wed.
Wet,
wet, E.
wet.
Win,
won,
won.
Wind,
wound,
wound.
Work,
wrought^ W. R.
wrought.
Wring,
wrung, K.
wrung.
Write,
wrote,.
written.
In this table all such words as cut, cost, that do not receive
any modification are really weak, or regular verbs. They
cannot, from the laws which govern our sounds, receive an
addition. The same is the case with bleed, bled, &c. High
School Grammar, Art. 441.
They are placed here for convenience.
200. The past tense and Perfect Participle o\'
these verbs should not be used for each other.
EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION.
The horses draAved the carriage. The horses
were drove. The birds have flew away. The
stream has froze over. They have wrote to-da}T.
The meeting has began. She has sang a song.
The sun has rose. They done their work. My
watch was stole. The ball was throwed. The
applet have loll. The letter was writ. The let-
201— 204] * UNIPERSOtfAL VERBS. 9:i
ter was wrote badly. We rid a mile. I have not
saw him. My uncle- has same. The bird has
flew away.
Compose sememes containing these tvords : —
Arise, awake, begin, bite, bring, choose, do,
drink, find, give, hiae, know, ride, run, see, sing,
spring, swim, take, think, wring.
LESSON XLI.
DEFECTIVE AND UNIPERSONAL VERBS.
201. A few verbs are defective or wanting in
some of their parts, which £,re partly supplied
by other words ; as, am, was, been, from the verbs
am, was, and be ; go, went, gone from ^oand wend.
■ 202. The other defective verbs are entirely
wanting ill some of their parts. They are : —
Present. Past. Perf. Part. Present. Paxf. Perf. Part
Can, could, . Quoth, quoth, - -.
Will, -would, , Wit, wot. .
Shall, should, . Beware, , .
May, might, . Hark, in the imperative only.
Must, must, .
Ho. in " this will do," "this will answer the
purpose," is 'a different verb from do to act.
203. A few verbs are found only in the third
person, singular. *
They Are called unipersorial, thai is. hav-
ing but one person ; as, it ,;/ hail
204. Methinks, methought ; arte onipersonal com-
pound ; of the Datrv and the verb think
02
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [205 — 207
which means seems or appears. Methinhs means,
it seems or appears to me. This verb think is not
of the same origin as the verb thinJc, to consider.
The first is from thinean, the second from thencqn.
EXERCISES.
Did you see the rainbow after the shower ?
Victory perched upon our banners. It is raining
on the hills. How hard it rains ! Thou canst
not do it. Incline my heart unto thy testimonies.
Bind them upon thy fingers, write them upon the
table of thy heart. Methinks I hear him coming.
It thundered heavily.' It seemed as if the foun-
tains of the great de^p were broken up.
Write sentences discribing aros< .
LESSON XLII.
ADVERBS.
205. When I say " He runs swiftly," ;'•" She
speaks correctly," siviftly and correctly tell* how
the thing or action is done, and modify the verb.
They are called adverbs, which means to a
verb, that is, added to a verb.
Adverbs also modify adjectives and' other ad-
verbs ; as, most pleasant, very sloivly.
200. A d v orbs are words joined to verbs,
a d j ectives, and other ti-d verb s to modify '
them.
207. They are divided into classes according
1<> fcbeir meaning.
208—209] adverbs. 93
Adverbs of manner; justly, pleasantly, sweetly,
manly, kindly, $-c.
The most of *these end in ly. Others arc
thus, however, somehow, else, well, ill.
Adverbs of place ; here, there, where, yonder,
hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, hither-
ward, forward, baclczvard, $c.
Adverbs of time ; now, to-day, lately, since, then,
soon, ago, when, then, while,- before, after, till, until
early, late, ever, always^ never, often, oft, rarely, *$c
Adverbs of order ; first, secondly, thirdly, lastly,
finally. •
Adverbs of degree ; more, most, less, least, tvelU
better^ as, so, 9£c. 9 ..
Adverbs of number; once, tivicc, thrice, four-
times, frc. . •
Adverbs of doubt ; perhaps, peradventure, poss i-
bly, perchance, £c.
Adverbs of interrogation ; how, why, when,
whence, where, §c.
Adverbs of affirmation ; yea, yes, truly, verily,
c rtainly, §c:
Adverbs "of negation ; nay, no, not, nowise.
208. Some*idverbs are used independently, or
rather, they embrace a whole proposition ; as aye,
yea, no, amen. As, " Are you going ?" Yes. That
is, " I am going."
209. There at the beginning of sentences does
not modify any word, and is a mere expletive. It
serves to throw the subject after the verb;
| There is no doubt of the. fact." " There w;i
man."
94 NTARY GRAMMAR. (210—213
L0. Some adverbs not only modify, l»ut a]
connect sentences; as, "I saw him when lie
came." When connects " I saw htm" and "lie
came" and modifies game. " "When he came,"
modi fies saw. They are called conjunctive adverbs.
211. The conjunctive adverbs are : after, before',
n, dnce, hou\ till, until, when, where, while,
whilst, whenever, no sooner, as soon as, as far as, <fc.
212. Phrases like "as far as " should be ana-
lyzed. "He writes as well as his brother." As
W( ii<'* connects the two. sentences. The first as
modifies well ; as well modifies writes ; the second
as modifies writes understood and is equal to as
well. As well as is equivalent to that well whiek.
The first as is demonstrative, the second relative.
MPARISO^f OF ADVERBS.
213. Some adverbs, especially those of manner,
are compared. They are -compared like adjec-
tives.
1. Those ending in ly are compared by more
and most, less and least ; as, wisely, rniore wisely,
most wisely ; kindly, less kindly, least kindly.
2. Others are compared by adding er and est ;
as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftcner, oftmest.
3. A few are irregular; as, little, less, least;
miu'h, more, most ; badly ox ill, worse, icorst ; well,
in tier, best ; far, farther, farthest ; forth, farther,
furthest. -
EXERCISES.
Model. He .sleeps soundly. Soundly is an adverb of
manner, it is a word used to modify verbs, &c.} and modifies
steeps, by Rule XVI.
214 — 215] PREPOSITIONS
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and' other adverbs.
The sun shines- brightly. Thomas learng ra-
pidly. Susan is very diligent. He drove very
swiftly. They came to-day. The£ are very
young. The trees bend, when the wind biota*.
Where is my friend? When the rain ceases, I
shall return'. Hoots grow downward, trees mount
upward.
Insert adverbs in these sentences ;
The pupil stitdies . The horse runs .
The sun shines . The corn grows .
The liou roars . lie will come — _. 1
you arrive, I will meet you . a re you go i 1 1 «;- ?
The boat starts .
Compose sentences containing these adverbs: —
Diligently, truly, where, nobly, proudly, often,
most, afterward, presently, before, patiently,
hereafter.
LESSON XLIII.
PREPOSITIONS.
214. He came with me. With conned- ili<> ob-
jective case me with came, and shows the relation
between them.
It is called a preposition.
The word which follows the preposition i
ways in the objective case.
215. A Preposition is a word which
shows the relation between its ob-
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [216 — 219
and some other word
i 11 the same scnte n c e .
The preposition with, its object is called an
adjunct; as; "He came with mi?\ With meia an
adjunct modifying came.
216. Prepositions are of two classes, simple
and compound or derived prepositions.
217. The simple prepositions are: —
At, by, down, ere, for, from, in, of, on, over, past,
round, since, till, to, through, under, up, with. Also,
after, the comparative of aft. "
218. The compound prepositions are : —
First, compounds with a. A in a-board is a
preposition meaning on or in.
Examples : A-board, a-bove, about, across, against,
along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around,
artkwart. Aboard is equal to on board; amid,
on or in mid, $c.
Second, compounds, with be, which means by ;
as, before, behind, beloiv, beneath, beside, besides, be-
tween, betwixt', 'beyond. m
Ihird, compounds of preposition^ with prepo-
sitions or adverbs. In-to, out-of, through-out, to-
ward, towards, upon, until, unto, underneath, loithin,
without. . •
Prepositional phrases, according to, in respect of,
$c. Notwithstanding is compounded of not, with,
and participle standing.
219. Bating, barring, concerning, during, except-
ing, regarding, respecting, touching, $c, usually
treated as propositions are properly participles.
- 1. Save and except, are properly imperatives*
- 2. Near, nigh, like and unlike are adjectives fol-
220] • PREPOSITIONS. . 97
lowed By the objective or more properly the da-
tive.
220. Prepositions also modify verbs, and form
parts of compounds; as, "He casts up his ac-
counts."- "He rides about" down-iaW, out-cry,
over-How, kc.
Their primary force ,-eems to he like that of
adverbs; as "He went up" This expression may
now be modified by various objects ; as, He went
up the hill, up the road, up the street, £c.
See farther in II. S. Grammar.
EXERCISES.
Model. He came with me. With is a preposition, i*-
shows the relation between me and came, by Rule XVII.
Prepositions show the relation between nouns and pro-
nouns and otJu r ford* in th< same sentences.
jfte is in the objective case after with, byllule XVIII.
Prepositions are followed by tin objective ease.
He resides in Richmond. Flowers bloom in
summer. Rivers flow into the Be . lie came
from Rome. 13irds .fly through the air. The
ball rotts along the ground.
Insert prepositions., §c.
The river flows the sea.
brother came home a wagon.
Compose short sentences containing the** preposi-
tions :
In, on, up, down, from, out of, under, behind,
across, beyond, beneath.
98 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [221—223
lks>o\ XLJY.
CONJ UNCTIONS.
Tl\. John writes' ami Thomas reads. Here
and connects two propositions without forming
u part of either.
It is called a conjunction, which means joining
together,
222. A conjunction is a w u r tl use d
to connect words and propositions.
They are: and, although, as, because, both,
but, either, except, if, lest, nor, or, since, t^ian.
that, though, unless, whether, yet.
For the classes of conjunctions and conjunctive word
gee H. S. Gr.
EXERCISES.
Model. Thomas and James have come. *And is a con-
junction ; it is used to connect words and sentences. It
.connects Thomas aud James, by Rule XIX. ,
Conjunctions connects words and sentences.
Mary and her sister have' come. The winter
is past and spring has come. James or his
brother will come to-morrow. Peaches, apples
and pears grow in the orchard.
Write, sentences describing a garden.
LESSON. XL Y.
INTERJECTIONS.
223. Interjections are exclamatory words,
thrown between propositions to express emotions
or to call attention.
224] INTERJECTIONS. 99
- They arc dot members or modifiers of propo-
sitions' and not do connect them.
224. Interjections express, 1. Sorrow : i\s, oh !
nit! alas! 2. Exultation : as, hurrah! huzza.'
aha! bravo! o. Disgust: as, fie! fudge! tush!
pshaw! 4. "Wonder: as, indeed! strange! ivhat!
5. A sudden call : as, ho ! hallo ! 6. Salutation :
as, 0, welcome! hail! 7... Taking leave : as, good
byey farewell, adieu. 8. A demand for attention
or silence : as, hark! hush! hist! lo ! behold!
•
EXERCISES.
Model. Ah! woe is me. Ah! is an interjection, it
expresses sorrow.
»
Hark ! some one comes. Hush ! here he is.
Alas ! my hope is tied. Hark ! what sound was
that. Hist ! he is coming.
PART SECOND.
SYNTAX.
LESSON" XLVI.
PROPOSITIONS.
225. Syntax treats of the arrangement and
construction of words in propositions and sen-
tences.
226. Language consists of propositions,
single or united, and modified in various ways.
227. Propositions* may be deckirative, in-
terrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.
228. A perfect proposition consists of two
parts, subject and predicate.
229. The ' s u b j e c t and p r e d i c a t c may
.be simple or compound, grammatical or logical.
230. The simple subject or piedicatc consists
of but one word or clause ; as, John runs; To lie
is base.
Here John is the simple subject ; runs, tin-
simple predicate. To lie is the subject; base, tnc
predicate.
231. The compound subject or predicate con-
sists of two or more simple subjects or predict
united; as, " John and James have come." " Mary
sings and plays "
U>2 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [232 — 230
232. The grammatical subject or predicate is the
same as the simple; as, John runs.. John is the
grammatical subject, runs the grammatical predi-
cate.
233. The logical subject 'or predicate is the
grammatical, with its various modifiers; as "The
loud winds roar through the forest." The loud
winds, is the logical subject ; roar through the for-
est, is the logical predicate.
EXERCISES.
Point out the classes of propositions and the forms Or sub«
ject and predicate.
God is the maker of all things. Industry and
perseverence will overcome every obstacle. When
will James and his brother return ? Mary plays
and sings sweetly. How beautiful are the starry
haavens ! Call your -brother. Let us walk in
the shady groves.
Write six declarative sentences, containing any
words the teacher may assign.
Also, in the same manner, six interrogative
sentences.
LESSON XLVII.
SENTENCES, CLAUSES, AND PHRASES.
234. When -a sentence contains but one propo-
sition, it is a. simple sentence-; when more than
one, a compound sentence.
235. The propositions contained in a sentence
are called members.
236. The clause is a proposition or a collection
237—238] SENTENCES, AQ. 108
of words introducing some new fact, and which is
dependent upon some wTord in the sentence ; as,
" The tree which you see is a maple." " Which
you see," is a clause dependent upon tAe,
Clauses may be used as members of proposi-
tions.
5*37. A Phrase is a short expression like, in
ruin, in fine, in short, to be sure, fe'.
They express a single idea when taken together.
Taken word by word they have no grammatical
connection with the rest of the proposition.
238. Clauses my be divided into substantive, ad-
jective, relative, adverbial, and conditional clauses.
1 . A Substantive clause is one that performs
the office of a noun in the nominative or objective .
case; as, "I do not know whether he came."
- Whether he came " is the object oiknoio.
2. A Relative clause is* one introduced by
a relative pronoun.
3. An Adjective clause is one introduced
by an adjective or participle ; ^ James, eager to learn,
applied himself to study." " 1 erupted by pleasure,
he forgot the lessons of his youth."
4. A n A d v c rb i a 1 clause is one that performs
the office of an adverb ;' as, " Where thou lodgest.
T will kxHg
5. A Conditional clause is one that i
presses a condition ; as, "If he come* to morrow, I
will return
6. There is also the Absolute clause whi
forms no part of the proposition. It consists of
a noun or piv>u.»un joined with a participle; a*.
The sun ha . the clonds disappeared.
Inl ELEMENTARY 6UAMMAR. [230 — 240
239. The first five clauses may be reduced to three,
Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial,
uniting the relative with the adjective; and the
conditional with the adverbial clauses.
EXERCISES.
Point out the clauses, and phrases; and analyze
and parse tlie sentences.
Some, presuming on the good nature of their friends,
write their letters in a hasty and unconnected manner.
Tn short, if a man prefers a life of industry, it is because
he has an idea of comfort. The measure is so exception-
able that we can by no means permit it. The youth fond
of play, neglects his .studies. Pleased with the sight he
returned homewards. When the sun arises, the clouds
will disappear. Having learned his lesson, he went out
to walk.
Write sentences describing a farm yard.
LESSON XLVIIL
*
THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
240. Rule I. The subject of the proposition
is put in the nominative case.
Rule II. The verb must agree with the
subject in number and person.
Rule III. The noun or pronoun in the pre-
dicate agrees with the subject in case.
Rule IV. 4 noun or pronoun limiting another
noun or pronoun denoting the same person or
thing, ag ree a w Ith i I i 1 1 ea s e .
240] EULEo OF SYNTAX. , 105
Rule V. A noun or pronoun limiting an-
other noun denoting a different person or thing,
is put in the possessive case.
Rule "VI. Adjectives modify nouns and pro-
nouns.
Rule VII. The indefinite article limits nouns
in the singular number only. #
Rule VIII. The definite article limits nouns
in the singular or plural number.
Rule IX. Pronouns agree with their ante-
cedents in gender, number, and person.
Rule X. The direct object of the Transitive
verb is put in the objective case.
Rule XI. Verbs of asking and teaching are
followed by two objective cases, one of the per-
son, and the other of the thing.
feule XII. Verbs of giving, granting, allow-
ing, &c.,'are followed by- two objects; the di-
rect and the indirect in the objective case.
Or better, Verbs or giving, granting, allow-
ing, &c, are followed by the objectine of the
direct object, and the dative of the indirect ob-
ject.
Rule XIII. Verbs of making, choosing, ren-
dering, and constituting are followed by two
objectives; the one of the person, and the oth-
er of the effect produced.
Rule XIV. Nouns denoting duration of time,
distance, weight, measure, and prioe, &re#pu1
in the objective case.
5b
106 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [240
Rule XV. The words like, unlike, near, and
nigh arc followed by the objective case. [Or,
better, by the dative, as that was their former
power.]
Rule XVI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjec-
tives, and other adverbs.
Rule XVH. Prepositions connect words and
show the relation between them.
Rule XVIII. The object of the preposition
is put in the objective case.
Rule XIX. Conjunctions connect sentences,
and parts of sentences.
Rule XX. The interjections 0! oh! ah! are
followed by the objective of the first person.
Interjections are generally followed by the
vocative of the second person.
Rule XXI. The Infinitive depends upon
verbs, adjectives, and nouns.
Rule XXII. The simple infinitive without
to is used after bid, do, feel, have, hear, let,
make, need, see ; and also after may, can, will,
shall, and must, in the compound tenses.
Rule XXIII. The infinitive has sometimes a
subject in . the objective case.
Rule XXIV. Participles refer to nouns and
pronouns.
Rule XXV. Oerbal riouns are followed by
the same cases as the verbs from which they
are derived.
241 — 243] simple propositions. • 107
Rule ' XXVI. A noun or pronoun joined with
a participle having no dependence upon other'
words is put in the nominative case absolute.
Rule XXVII. The name of the person or
thing addressed is put in the vocative.
LESSON XLLV
ANALYSIS OV SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS.
241. The simple proposition consists of a sub-
ject and a predicate.
242. The subject may be various.
First, a noun ; as, " John runs."
Second, a pronoun ; iis, " He studies."
Third, an adjective used as a noun ; " Tho good
arc happy."
Fourth, an iniiuitivc; as, " To deceive is base."
Fifth, any word used merely as such ; as,
•• Good is an adjective.
243. The predicate may be various.
First, the verb ; as, " John runs." " God is."
Second, the adjective; as, " God is goodr
w* James is studious."
Third, a noun ; as, g James is a, painter "
Fourth, an infinitive ; as, " To falter is to I
everything."
Fifth, a noun and preposition or tho adjunct ;
as, -'He is in good spirits," that is, " He is cheer-
ful."
Sixth, an adverb ; as, « The tide is up.''
V)b kllme; [J44 — 246
244. Is in those sentences is a, copula connec-
ting the subject and predicate. '
The word copula means a link or joining.
245. Alljthoso forms are predicative combina-
tions.
EXERCISES.
Analyze these sentences and point out the different forms
of subject and predicate.
Water flows. Rain falls. Trees grow. Mary is sing-
ing. The sun is shining. The sun is hot. The rose is
beautiful, Mary and her sister are happy. He is in
Paris. The tree is under* the hill. The stone' is above
the spring. The tide is out. The wind is up. To de-
ceive is base.
Write sentences containing these words as subjects: —
Sun, birds, boys, horse, he; they, the wise, the indus-
trious, to do wrong, to tell an untruth, A, six.
Write sentences containing these as predicates : —
Blows, sing, mows, reap, laugh, play, prudent, indus-
trious, glad, merry, tall, sour, sweet, blacksmith, shoe-
maker, farmer, lawyer, student, .mason.
LESSON- L.
ATTRIBUTIVE MODIFIERS.
246. -Any word modifying a noun or pronoun
standing either in- the subject or predicate is an
attributive modifier.
They are:—
First, the adjective ; as, H A sweet apple." "'A
high hill."
The participle and the adverb used adjectively
247 I ATTRIBUTIVE MOPTlIEKv . 1U-'
belong to this class ; as, "The rising sun." " The
above statement."
Second, the noun in apposition, or the noun
joined to another denoting the same person or
thing ; as, " Thomas, the carpenter, is a good
man."
Third, the possessive case ; as, " John's hat/'
Fourth, the adjunct; as, '"The house of my
father ."
Fifth, the infinitive with t*; as, "A time to
plat/'. " " A play time. "
The attributives jnay change for each oth-
er ; as, " A golden crown " is equal to " A crown
of gold r " An old mari/raro Itafy " to "An old
Italian (man*;") "The house of my father" to
•"Myfath&f'shouse^
247. The principal word together with the
modifier forms the attributive combination.
KXKRCTSgS.
Hugh Miller, the Geologist was M mason. The tall
pine is a valuable tree. Newton, the great philosopher,
was an humble Christian. Mr. Mason's house is elegant.
The king of Italy is a brave soldier. The chest of oak is
heavy. The brave soldier, fighting for his native land,
should be held in lasting remembrance. There is a time
to weep and a time to laugh.
Compose fentences containing tKese words as attribu-
tive modifiers; —
Tall, beautiful, pleasant, high, sweet, strong, ma-
painter, shoemaker, farmer, Susan's, his, Mary's. Then.;
of my brother, in the garden.
TTO ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [248—249
LESSOR LI.
ANALYSIS CONTINUED.
OBJECTIVE MODIFIERS.
•J48. Any word modifying a verb, an adjective.
an adverb, or preposition is an objective modi-
fier. ■ ,
They are:—
First, the direct object, or objective case; as,
'•' Mary reads her book."
Second, the indirect object, of the dative case ;
as, " My fatlfer gave me this book."
Third, the factitive object, or the effect pro-
duced ; as, They made him chairman. " Making
chairman" is the assertion, him its object. Htm
is the direct object ; chairman the factitive.
That which any person or thing is appointed,
chosen, or constituted, is called the factitive ob-
ject. . 0
Fourth, the remote object, expressed by an
adjunct; as, " He repents of his folly." "He is
fond of study."
Fifth, the object of flace ; as, "James is at .
home." "He lives here."
Sixth, the object of time ; as, " He came yester-
day" " He started before day.'' ♦
Seventh, the object of cause ; as, " Bocrates died
from poison."
Eighth, the object of manner ; as, " He speaks
kindly", *
249. The principal word together with the mod-
ifier forms the objective combination.
2.r>0— 251] CONTRACTED PROPOSITION.
Ill
250. These combinations are the elements of all
sentences. ' Tl<%, together with contracted con-
structions, form language.
EXAMPLES.
" A wise man governs his passions." "Man
governs " is the predicative ; " a wise man ' the
attributive ; " governs his passions," the objective
combination.
EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS.,
Washington, the father of his country, was born in
Virginia. The wise Socrates taught the immortality of
the soul. The happy children of our friend were playing
in the garden. Mary's sister reads well. James will
return to-morrow. He conversed with us pleasantly.
Compose sentences containing these words as objective
modifiers : —
Field, arithmetic, house, him, me, James, president,
secretary, to-day, in Charleston, there, in the country,
kindly.
LESSON L1L
ANALYSIS CONTINUED.'
CONTRACTED PROPOSITIONS. %
251. There are certain forms in which the sub-
ject and predicate are not fully expressed, but
where they are found in a contracted form.
They are : —
• First, the participles ; as, " He answering said,'
which is, when fully expressed, equal to " He an-
swered and said."
TUT ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
Second, by the participle used adverbially : as,
"He fell fighting^ that is, "He%ll and he was
fighting when he fell."
ft modifies the verb, by expressing an action or
state taking place or existing at the same time. ■
Ihird, the case absolute, or the noun joined
with a participle independent of the rest of the
sentence; as, "The enemy advancing, he retreat-
ed," that Is, "-Because the enemy advanced he
retreated."
Fourth, the infinitive with to, or the Supine;
as, " lie prepared to <7o," that is, "He prepared
that he might go."
This is the infinitive of purpose ; as, " He reads
to Irani;' *< JIc reads that he may learn."
Fifth, the infinitive with an objective case ; as,
"I advised him to nor « I advised him that he
•should go " or" I advised that he should go."
1 EXERCISES.
Expand the contracted sentences as shown
above. - % «
Walking down the street, I met a friend. Having
been elected, he accepted the office. His story having
been told, he departed. He went away rejoicing. He
labored hard to prepare himself for his position. He was
anxious to learn. T advised him to return. He bade
me go.
Complete sentences containing these contracted
propositions : —
The weather being pleasant. The storm having passed.
Walking down tne street. Running out. While walk-
ing by the rivrr. Pitying and shouting in the street,
252 — 250] compound sentences 11
• >
By reading good books. Came running and saying.
Lesson having been* learned. Work being completed.
Sisters approaching. Desires to learn. Strives to gain.
Anxious to. go. Labors to become. Urged him to go.
LESSON LIIL
ANALYSTS CONTINUED.
COMPOUND SENTENCES.
252. Simple propositions may bo used in two
ways.
1. They may be used like single words as mod-
ifiers or members of other propositions.
2. Or, they may be placed by the side of each
other, as independent members uniting in the ex-
pression ot a single thought.
The first methed is called Subordination : the
second, Coordination.
I. SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS.
253. Subordinate propositions are of three
kinds; substantive, adjective, and adverbial.
2,54. A substantive proposition is one that may
be used u\ the place of a noun.
255. They may be used, first, as the subji
as, " That all must die, is certain." Second, as the
direct object ; as, ^'We know that tummer will
cofne again." Third, as the second object ;
" The Bible teaches us that God is 4
25G. The adjective proposition is one that p<
forms the office of an adjectiv e man
114 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [257 — 259
who is prudent provides for the future,'* is equal
to the prudent mem, $c.
257. An adverbial proposition is one that mod-
ifies the leading verb like an adverb.
258. It expresses, first, the place ; as, " where
thou lodge st, I will lodge ;"■ second, the time; as.
" ichen the mail arrives, we shall hear the news-;"
third, the manner; as, "Forgive ns our debts,. as
ive forgive our debtors;" fourth, the cause; as,
" The pear fell oft because it teas ripe ;;" fifth, in-'
tensity; as, " He is as rich as his brother."
Conditional propositions also belong to this class.
EXERCISES.
That the earth is a sphere, is easily proved. When
letters were first used, is uncertain. Why he resigned
his office, -will soon be made known. He whom I loved,
is dead. The rewards which are promised, shall be
given, Whither thou goest, I will go. When the bell
rings, we must go to school. If it does not rain, I will
come. If I had not the book, I would purchase it.
Peter, who had a sword, drew it. Thomas is as tall as
his brother.
Write a few short sentences describing your slate.
LESSON LIY.
ANALYSIS CONTINUED.
II. COORDINATE EROPOSITIONS.
259. In the next condition of sentences, inde-
pendent propositions are brought by the side of
each other, and joined together to express one
2G0— 2G2J COORDINATE PROPOSITIONS. 115
thought; as, " The sun shines, and the air is
mild."
260. This is done in three ways ; by uniting
them, by opposing them, by accounting for one
by means of the other.
261. The first class are called copulative ; the
second, adversative; the third causal.
Point out in these propositions the members
and connectives.
COPULATIVE PROPOSITIONS.
»
The sun shines and the clouds are breaking away.
Heaven and earth shall pass away. He has not only
heard the lecture, but also understood it. He is both
learned and wise. He is poor and happy. Tie is wise
as well as learned.
ADVERSATIVE PROPOSITIONS.
He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. The
house is convenient, but the garden is in waste. Either
John or his brother will come.
In such sentences as the last the conjunctive
words enter in pairs expressed or understood ; as,
" Whether James or John will come is uncertain."
kk Neitfier Mary nor her sister are here."
CAUSA L PRO POSIT I < » X 8 .
Enoch was not, for God took him. He ia idle, thi
fore he is poor. lie is quarrelsome, therefore people
avoid him. He is guilty, for he blush-
2(>2. When the propositions ar< onneofc
togethor as to express a complete thought, th<
116 MENTARY 'GRAMMAR. [263—
term a Period; as, "God is loved, for he is
good." .
263. Periods may be simple or compound.
"Though I walk through the valley of the
§hadow of death, I will fear no evil ; for thou art
with me," is a compound period.
" Though I walk through the valley, of the
shadow of death, I will fear no evil," is one pe-
riod* " I will fear no evil for thou art with me,"
is another.
264. -Periods singly or combined form the
highest condition of language.
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
Let the the teacher select some interesting lit-
tle story or short description, and require the
pupils to read it carefully and then give a written
abstract of it in their own language.
A similar exercise may frequently aud profitably be given.
Indeed, the teacher should regard all the exercises
given in composition as models, which he may use according
t>> his judgment.
LESSOK LV.
THE RUfrES OF SYNTAX WITH REMARKS AND ILLUS-
TRATIONS.
KULE I. THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB.
265. The subject of the proposition is put
in the nominative case.
1. In contracted propositions the subject is put
in the objective with the inhnitive.
266] RULES CONTINUED. 117
2. The subject of the imperative U generally
understood; as, Go (thou.) Come (ye.)
3. In answers to questions the noun is frequenl-
ly used without a verb expressed ; as, " Who gave
it to you?" Ans. "John" (gave it to me.)
4. The noun and pronoun must not be used
with the same verb; as, " The king is just," not
ik The king he is just." •
5. 7 hem should not. boused for these and those.
EXERCISES.
•
Stephen was .stoned. Napoleon Bonaparte was the
tirst emperor of France. God tempers the wind to the
shorn lamb. The trees are laden with fruit. The pru-
dent will be respected, but the careless will be despised.
Correct these sentences : — Them are delightful. Him
and me were there. You and me saw them. Are not
him and her cousins. The Queen she is a noble lady.
John he has gone* to school.
RULE II. AGREEMENT Of THE
266. The verb must agree with the subject
in numbor and person..
1. A singular noun used in a plural sense takes
a verb in the plural ; as, " Twenty sail were seen."
2. An intransitive verb between two nomina-
tives of different numbers usually agrees with the
first ; as, " His meat was locusts and wild bom
3. As regards, as appears, as follows, <fc, are
equal to as it regards, as it follows, <fc.
4. When they may be substituted for a coll-
tive noun with a singular form, the verb must be
plural: as. "The assembly were divided in their
118 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [267 — 268
opinions," that * is, they,- the individah were di-
vided.
."). When it may be substituted, it is singular ;
,l The nation is powerful." " It is powerful. "
207. Twp or more different subjects connected
\>y and require a plural verb.
1. When the nouns thus connected are modi-
fied by each, every, cither, neither, and no., the verb
is singular.
2. A verb may agree with the first noun and
be understood with the rest; as, ""Thy beauty
walks, thy tenderness and love."
3. AY hen the subjects are of different persons
the verb prefers the first to the second, and the
second t<*the third ; as, " James and I are going."
268. Two or more singular subjects connected
by or or nor require a- singular verb.
"When they are of different numbers the verb
should be plural and the plural subject should be
placed nearest to it.
EXERCISES.
Varro was esteemed a learned man, but Aristides was
ealled just. To see the sun is pleasant. Titus has been
called the delight of the human race, A variety of bless,
ings has been conferred upon us. liichcs, honors, and
pleasures, steal away the heart from religion. He and I
are foes. My aunt, with her daughter, was here yestcr.
. day. To fish and hunt are pleasant. Either sex and
every age was engaged in the pursuits of industry. Ig-
norance or negligence has caused the mistake. Neither
the captain nor the sailors were acquainted with the
coast. One or both of the witnesses were present. Thou
mayst go, or he,' but not both.
269] t;t ijs i ..XJINI'ED. 11*
TO BB CORRECTED.
The clouds has dispersed. The birds sings. There
was three men in the company. Thcrcis men who never
think. Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many
vices. James and John was there. John or William
have come. The horse or eow arc his. A meeting were
called. The crowd were very great. The council was
unanimous. The assembly was divided in opinion.
Either George or I has .the work to perform. Have the
horse or cow been found.
Write an abstract as directed in the previous
lesson.
LESSON 1AI.
BULBS CONTINUED.
RULE 111. THH PREDICATE NOUN' OK PfcONO
269. The noun or pronoun in the predicate
agrees with the subject in case.
1. It does not always agree with it in nunibcr:
as, " Honest men are the salt of the earth." kk >v
pence is twelve half pennies."
2. The verbs that admit a noun in the predicate
are to be,, to become and the passive voice of such
\ <rbs as to name, to render, to make, .*
.3. When the infinitive has a subject in the
objective case the predicate noun or pronoun ifl
put in the objective.
£. In contracted propositions after the irfftni-
tives andparticiplcs of intransitive verbs, the noun.
120 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [270
or pronoun is put in the nominative ; as, "Being
a soldier* I could not resist the call," that is,
" Since T was a soldier."
EXERCISES.
It was he that said it. It is they who are to blame.
James is ; skillful workman. We thought him to be a
rogue. Brutus is represented as having been an ardent
lover of his country. I have a faint recollection of his
being a*classmate.
TO BE 'CORRECTED.
It was not him that said it. It cannot be him. Whom
are you? I did not think of its being him. I could not
believe it was her. It was me that you saw Tt is them.
If it is them whom you saw, it is right.
RULE IV. apposition.
-70. A noun or pronoun limiting another
noun or pronoun denoting the same person or
thing, agrees with it in case; as, "Paul, the
apostle." "Yemen of Athers."
1. The limiting noun is said to be in apposition
with the other.
2. The names of persons form complex nouns
and are parsed as one word; as, u3Iark Antony
mourned the death of Julius Caesar."
3. As sometimes connects words in apposition ;
as, " Clay as an orator was" unrivalled."
4. Distributive pronouns and nouns modified
by distributive adjectives, in the singular agree
with nouns in the plural ; as, " They fled, every
270] RULES CONTINUED. 121
man to his tcnf," that is, " They fled, every man
Hod to his tent.
They I h other," that is, "They each
Jove the other." \ch is in a; ion with th
and other is the ohjeet of love.
•>. A noun may be in apposition with a sen-
tence, and an infinitive or sentence may be in ap-
position with a noun.
When two nouns come together in the pos-
sessive ease, the sign is annexed to the last ; as,
ki John, the Baptist's head."
7. A- noun in apposition with two or more nouns
is put in the plural ; as, "Romulus -and Kemns,
grandsons of Nu mitor.
EXERCISES.
Newton, the great philosopher, was an humble Chris-
tian. We men are mortal. FJ men of Athens. Jane
and Mary, our cousins. Thou, even thou art feared.
Washington the fathSr of his country was born in Vir-
lia. They praise each other.
TO BE CORRECTED.
It was Virgil, him who wrote the Acneid. I speak
Cromwell he who beheaded Charles. XI and M:<
ria, our cousin. I saw Mr. Brown he who In - the
river. Give it to James he who is standing \
Arrange these sentences differently without chang-
ing the meaning, thus : — " Tli«i tree is high winch
stands yonder." " The tree which stands yonder
is high."
The man whom you aafl returned. The river
which you crossed is rapid. The nignt was dark and
•6
122 _ . lRY gram:.; [271
cold. The 1 is the longest' river iq ihe world.
Youder stands the kouit of my youth'. .
LESSON LV1T. .
• i;ri.i:s continued.
HULE V. . the i ;ive case'.
271. ' noun, or pronoun limiting another
noun denoting a different person or thing is put
in tl e possessive case, ars "Johns hat," "His
1. Tlie limited noun is often omitted when it
may be easily*known; .as, UI dined at Johnson's
2. When tlie thing possessed belongs to two
or more persons; tlie sign is annexed tg the last ;
as. "Joi'fn, James; • ■ illiam's house."
8. But when it belongs to each person separate-
ly it must be added to eat-h : as, "Worcester's'
and W eh & t cite dictionaries."
4. Wonls united so as to form a complex nonn
add the sign to the last; as, li Henry the eighth's
Bcign,"
When po j eases are in apposition the
is annexed to the last only ■ unless the lim-
ited nonn is omitted, wheJi it is annexed to the
first; as, uIsaw him at Brown., the bookseller's
re," or, "at Browns the bookseller."
0. rLro noun aiurpreposition of arc often used
ln^ead'of the pdsses;-i\wu ease; as, "The hat of
Jvil.u,' '}(■:• J.oiin*s hat." "The advice of my
mother," for "My mother'* advice."
272] RULES CONTINUED. •♦128
EXERCISES.
Man's extremity is God's opportunity. Whose works
are these ? They are Cicero's, the most eloquent of men.
Ho accompanied me to St. Mary's. Peter, John, and
Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. The name
>»f Jackson, the Christian soldier, tho heraic and skillful
general will live forever in the memory of his country-
men. The great heart of the nation throbs heavilv at
the portals of his grave.
TO BE CORRECTED.
0
This was your fathers estate. One mans loss is often
another mans gain. These books are their's, those are
your's. The men shoes are in the box. David and
Solomon's reign were prosperous. Mary's sister's cou-
sin's child is sick. This was a discovery of Sir Isaac
Newton. The medicine was procured at Jones, the
apothecary and druggist's.
KTLE VI. ADJECTIVES.
272. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns,
as, UA good man." "He is wis**."
1. They modify infinitives; as, "To see the
sun is pleasant;" and sentences; as, "That he
should have refused the appointment is extraordi-
nary,'*
2. They sometimes modify other adjectives ;
as, "' Red hot iron."
8. They modify also a noun and adjective taken
together as one idea; as, & poor old man. A fine
bay horse.
4. With infinitives and participles the adjeo-
tire is sometimes used indefinitely ; as, "To be
llM ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ("272
e and good is to be great and " Being
honettis better tlian lj$mg wealthy "
These are contracted expressions in which wis s
and good stand in the predicate.
They y intransitive verbs, and with
them form the predicate ; as, '*lle felWtf." "He
\66kspale.\'m
6. They modify also transitive -verbs, to" show-
the eitect produced; as, u He made me glad."*
••Thou makest trie earth soft wifch showers."
Making gl he assertion, and me is the Object
of it. See Rule XIII. *
7. Adjectives s. • not be used *in the place
of adverbs, except in cases like those just given.
With the they are. used as nouns ; as, " The rich
are not always happy."
8. When comparison is made between two ob-
jects the comparative degree must be used ; when
it is made between tin :e.or more, the superlative
is used.'
• 9. Double • id superlatives must,
be avoided.
10. Adjectives thai 1 number must agree
with their nouns in i ne day, ten days,
this man, these men.
EXERCISES
•
The good man is happy. To advance was difficult, to
retreat dangerous. A fair young girl was leading a ven-
erable old man. The hay smells sweet.. Thou malcest
the earth soft with showers. - This boy is industrious,
.that one is idle.
273 — 274] rules continued. 125
*
A new barrel of floui should be " A barrel oi
i load of
new pair of boots. She reads proper, writes
V tree fifty foot high. Twenty
of the two. He is the
fehe most best. 1 lis is the bestest.
all her daughters. A more heal-
thier place ea mot be found, t do not like those kind
ofaj I you have some of those molasses? I
three hour. He sat silently. The
appU
letter to some friend describing your school
■
WESSON LVIII.
ID. .
E VII. TUB II
r3< The indefin i limits nouns in
274. ' & the
singular or plur. .
men."
1.
limi is
^mortal." •■
in
; ;\nu do not :
126 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [274
1. Before certain proper nouns which are pre-
ceded by adjectives or are used like adjectives
themselves the article is used; as, "The great
Milton;" " The French (people.)" "The Andes
(mountains.)' '
,- 4. "When proper nouns are used to represent a
class the article is used ; as, u He is the Cicero of
his ago." " He is*not a Washington."
5. The article is sometimes used. to modify the
meaning of an adjective or adverb; as, .*'• A few
men." " A hundred men." Compare five hun-
dred men. " The more." " The Stronger." " The
often er I see it, the better I like it."
6. When two or more adjectives modify, one
object the article is placed before the first only;
* as, "A red and white flag." " A large and con-
venient house."
But if they modify different objects it ' must
stand before each ; as, "A red and white flag,"
that is, two flags.
V. Where each adjective is to be made emphatic
the article is to be repeated, as, "The learned,
the eloquent, the patriotic Chatham."
8. Where from habit, two different objects are
• associated together, the article, is not repeated;
as, "I saw a man and horse." " The father and
mother of the child."
EXERCISES.
I saw a white and black horse. A white and a black
horse were in the pasture. He has a little reverence,
hut not much. He has little, if any. reverence.
275] • bulbs cpXTftruii). 127
TO jii CORRECTED.
I have a ' o. ITo may be a jmljro or
doctor. Osk produces
flower. She lived in an age of el the
forbearance arc! the cl strong, lie
claimed tbc title oi'acj
UTILE IX. r
275. Pronouns agree ' •yrith their 'antecedents
in gender, number, and person.
Their case depends upon the construction of
the sentence.
1. Pronouns, referring to two or more nouns
taken together, must be plural ; as, " George and
Thomas excel in their studies."
2. "^Vhen " tlie". nouns are taken separately the
"pronoun 'must be singular ; as, "Neither James
not Jolin is diligent in Iris studies/.'
3. When the nouns are of difien nt persons the
pronoun is 'first rather than second and
.rather than third; as, "thou, he, and I must
study our lessons." I and he must find
your hooks."
4. 7ns often use&without reference to tin
der, number, or. person of itsani • ""It
is lie."' "It iSffthe " •- ! •• It i-
5. It sometimes stands (bra |
as, " J7.is certain thai
6. Who is applied to pel to animals
and things, that Is used lor who or which.
7. ,27«fl«J8preferrecl after the
, very, and all,
live who I
128 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAB. [276
EXERCISES.
•
The trees arc putting forth their leaves. My brother
me his book. James and his sister will go to their
uncle's- You, Susan, and I must recite our lessons.
The boy who is diligent will improve. "Who is coming'/
John. The dog which you saw, was mine. He is the
same man that he always was.
TO BE CORRECTED.
Livery person should lcfve their friend and do good to
them. No person should boast of themselves. Every
one must judge of their own feelings. The nobility usu-
ally have some title conferred upon them. He is the
same man whom I saw. Who which has common sense
can think so. The army whom he commands is well dis-
ciplined. James and you must study their lessons. The
dog who barked was killed. The* horse what I saw was
black.
Writs sentences describing the different trees in the
woods: Describe their form, size, height, the color of
their leaves, &c,
LESSOR LIX. .
RULES CONTINUED.*
RULE X. THE DIRECT OBJECT.
276. The direct object of the transitive verb
is put in the objective case; as, "James reads
his book." i(l love" him."
1. Infinitives, phrases, and sentences may be
used as the object ; as, " He loves to study ." "He
ss^y how few returned," " I hope that they are
safe"
276] 1 29
2. A few • them a
noun of similar meaiiin to live
a r.
an
[ . r in f
" Wo talked I
•u-
liar or idiomatic
Some verbs govern the objective,
,'h are otherwise intransitive : as, "Dance
-Trot the
ufmitives, partic md verbal nouns'
govern their verbs'; as
" To n " Til m making clothes."
ing clothes is the tailors .employment."
ct in eacl
Some verbs naturally intransitive, wh<
pon nded with j i s, gov
verbs; as; " She
smil "He at hin The
• lie
was
• He was inu<
■
The farmer is ploughing in the fie'' • will si
I
D.
W ! I see? lie T 111' : ;; m 1 have
chosen. She v I met. He and they we know, but
whom art thou art ? Xo o old practice of stealing
130 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [277 — 278
Who do you think L saw '■ The man who you raised
from obscur , v friend. He that is idle reprove".
They th;. hrc will honor..
RULE XL " the double object.
! 77. Verbs of asking and teaching arc fol-
ed by two abjecti\r( s, one of the pcr-
d the other of thing; as, "He asked
■ stion."
1. Sentences likrei u Ete taught him Grammar,"
o independent sentences;
B : lit him." "He taught Grammar.'"''
W"hei i changed into the passive
her 6\ aiiy become the subject,
Other 'us in the objective;
him," or " lie was taught
nar." is .generally preferred.
II. THE EOT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS.
278. "'. i : iving? granting, allowing,
wo objects, the direct and
vo case.
■ rbs of giving, gi mg,
folio 'cdty the objective of the direct object
' : c,- •■ - gave me a
bo( Bo the direct \ me, the indirect *
1. T >bject precedes the direct, when
it occupic atural position; as, "He gave
him a book."
* Two different forme of this ruje are given to meet the
different opinions of teachers.
279] RULES COTTINUED. 131
2. If it follows, it becomes a noun and prepo-
sition, Rr" adjunct; as, "He gave, me a book."
*% Flo gave a book to m
3. *"Wheri these verbs take the passive voi-
the dire< t object becomes the subject, while the
indirect' remains unchanged; as, "A book was
given me."
4. There is also a form where the indirect ob-
ject becomes the .subject ; as, "He promised me
a present." "I was promised a present. The
first is to be preferred.
E<E XIII. Off E1«CT OR FACTI-
TIVE OBJECT.
279. Verbs of making, elftosing, rendering,
and constituting arc followed by two objectives,
one of the person, and the other of the effect
produced; as. -They made him a judge."
1 u,te,
,„?, lllhli
ird, rech
,r the i is now called the
t from f actus made.
e him President," him is the
Jii-, .is what 1'
the ad of chooi Lm
4. In the pa the dii
foesul and the object o pui
in th Hfewascl ral
id ma^ be
id him anadj<
•Thev cna
c
182 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [280 — 282
wise;" or, an infinitive; as, •" They made him
go." "Thou Wilt make us to live." '
6.* The adjective in such cases agrees with the
noun, but modifies the verb by expressing the
effect produced by its action.
RULE XTV". TIME, DISTANCE, WEIGHT, &C.
«
280. Nouns denoting duration of time, dis-
* tance, weight, measure, and price, are put in
the objective case.
1. JJome is also put in the objective case after
verbs of motion; as, "lie has gone home." -•
uIIe is coming home." Home, however, is con-
sidered by many an adverb in such cases.
"2. "When any particular time is referred to, a
preposition is commonly used; as, "He arrived
on Wednesday last."
RULE XV. LIKE, UNLIKE, AC.
"281 . The adjectives like, unlike, near, and
nigh are followed by the objective case. [Or |
- more correctly, the dative, as that was their
former power.]
James taught his brother Arithmetic. Greography is •
taught in our school. lie asked us a questiou. He
gave me a book. A present was promised me. Thomas
bought his brother a book. They allowed him credit.
They chose him secretary. He was chosen clerk. It
made them delirious. They were made delirious. He
remained at home forty days. The storm continued '
three hours. I have walked five miles this morning:.
The tree is one hundred feet high. The house is twenty
282] RULES CONTINUED. 133
ieet square. This field contains ten : i>
worth si hillings a bushel. It' cost five dollars.
James is like his father. The house is near the river.
His son is unlike him.
Write a description of a garden. Point out the differ-
ent vegetables it contains; the manner ot cultivating
them and their uses.
LESSON LX.
RULES CONTINUED.
RULE. XVI. ADVERBS,
282. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs; as", "The horse ran rapidly."
"It is very pretty/'* "He was treated m<
kindly."
1. They sometinj Lify p|*< >uns;
adjuncts, and pi i . l( Justl&elov
in word only, but \\
dependency of these things ;" "1 lived ah
vain."
2; Adverbs an' sometime d Lndej
Thi dally the «■.
n. They are equivalent to a
•i Are you going? 5 ea ; tl
Properly they are not a it affirmative and
negative particles.
3. Adverbs are sometimes
without an ial modificati " ■■• '.•/. I had
not heard it," "Indeed, is it so
1?A [282
[victory word; when
:<.:rb; as, " There
It lias the [ifying power.
nouns; as,
UicewZ ' «• of tliiD bout?"
-Till then ' ' •'
('. IJivo : • sc utenee are
td should not be
aintcd -with liim." This means " I am
him.
7. Adverl d near the words they
modify; as, uWa always find them ready."
" We lind I *
Her * 'placed in both instances
but convey nt meaning in each. *
'-
be old m s slow' e .should always rcver-
iend lives there. When will
, ery tirerome. "Just aoove
TO. BE CQ
e are. -The h
ice aonri Is rather
I finished this lesson. I saw the
id with half an eye. Ee rode to
eows on horseboek. He only read
book, nothing. • I dont know not!
about it. I cannot study no more.
283] ru
RULE X
283. Pj • ow
the relation I
me:" E
• 1. Tli« art
■
2. It shows the relatio f and
I he word that they as an. a< lj unci
3.' The preposition stands regularly b
object.
4. Two or mor<
as a compound p ion; i
tHto arcades the ( up to a bit of bit
sky.''
5. Appropriate prepositions jnu
words; a^, "I am int- in the boo]
wi
Fo
•.
•• He
■
7. At is used befoi •
and-/
and land; "He bo
"AtGreei
at Liverpool
the 2'0flb.
8 « / •
large cil ■
" In Mem
9. II'
than two.
136 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [234
EXER< [SES TO BE CORRECTED AttD PARSED.'
Who did you speak to? Whom do you ]
walked by a staff -with moonlight. He has a c
in learning. He is reconciled with his brothy. Yon
may safely confide on him. I dif you in regard
of that measure. He died by the yellow fever. T;
TiccefBity of immediate action. There is no need on
Do you live in the white Sulphur Springs? They,
have gone in the field. Come in the garden,
the money between the four persons. He is de;-
of the public. He is independent on his father,
should profit from experience. He died for thirst,
lives at Xew Orleans. They remained sometime at
gland.
RULE XVJII. objective after prepositions.'
284*. The -object of the preposition is put in
the objective case.
. 1. Transitive verbs governing a case should
not at the same time be followed by a preposition ;
:is, a.This allows of no trifling." 4
2. But meaning except is sometimes followed
*by the objective. In the older writers it is fol-'
lowed by the nominative; as, "There is none
other. but he, '^ that \sjjut he is.
3. Titan after tbfc, comparative degree, is fol-
lowed by objective case of the relative pronoun
in some instances; as, "Beelzebub than whom
none higher sat."
The nominative is the more natural and correct
construction.
285] \ CONTINUED. 187
E8.
' ■ '■' :i.'i- arrived at ( on
tlic 25th of Mn ..• to improve in all
W.c may piofit by the errors o? others. On hi^ retui
was .captured by the enemi D Kane penetrated far
the Ar< ions. Gel into the carriage and shut
the door.
Write a ?< tter to some Fri< ant of \ o
studies
LESSOR LXL
RULES CONTINUED.
ftULE XIX. < ( >xjunctto:\ts.
•
285. Conjunctions connect sentences, and
parts of sentences; as? "The sun shines and
the clouds disappear;" c- William and Mi
are a happy pair."
1. When conjunctions conne
they must be in the san and in tin
construction; as, "Between you and I uld
be " between you and me." 'jM<
>g their fellow creatures and wl
sion," should be u and hating oppression."
2. When they connect w | mayb
red as connecting sent and
John were studying/' thai
ing, John was studying."
3. The connectives arc conjunct':
live adverbs, and relative pronoui
138 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [2S6 — £87
EXERCISES.
James and his sister are coming to-morrow'. Ti:o Bun
. rising in the eastern sky and dispelling the mists
that hung oyer the valley. Neither uespise the poor nor
envy the rich. Idleness and ignorance are the parents
of many vices. Cast thy bread upon the waters and it
shall return unto thee again. When the sun shines the
is mild. "Whoever strives to improve will succeed.
RULE XX. interjections; o! on! ah!
286. The interjections 0 ! oh! ah ! .are fol-
lowed by the objective of the first person ; as,
"0 me!" "Ah me!"
Interjections are generally followed by. the
vocative of the second person; as, "Oh thou!"
"0 virkie!"
1. The first expressions -may be regarded as
cases of ellipsis; as, "Ah me!" "Ah *pity me."
•"Woe is mo." , "Woe is to me." "Me misera-
ble." " Alas for me miserable one" or u It is mis-
erable to me."
2. 0 ! or oh ! is frequently used as expressive
of wishing; as, "Oh that I had wings' like a
dove." " I wish that I had wings like, a dove."
RULE- XXL the infinitive.
287. The Infinitive depends upon verbs,
nouns, and adjectives ; as,. " He studies to
learn;" "He has. time to go;" "James is
anxious to learn."
-88] Les CONTINUED. 189
RULE XXII. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO.
288.' The simple infinitive without to, is
used after bid, do, feel, have, hear, let, -m
need, see; and also after may, can, will,
and must, when used as auxiliaries.
1. The infinitive in its.nature is a verbal noun.
They differ fr.om other nouns by having the gov-
ernment and modifications of a verb.
2. It may he used as the subject, " lo err is
human ;" as predicate, "His object is to improve',]'
as object, "lie loves to play ;" as the second ob-
ject, " He taught him to write;" as the factitive
object, "They chose him to lead the way."
3. It also denotes a purpose or result; as, " He
studies to learn" — thai he may learn. "He stood
up to read" — that he might read. " He is willing
to sutler" — that lie may suffer. "He is liable to
be robbed" — tthat he may be rubbed.
(1.) In this manner it modifies ,adjeetiv<
" He is eager to learn" — tluft he may learn. " lie
was ambitious to rule " — that I
fruit is good to eat " — so that n.
(2.) It modifies nouns in a similar manm
" It is time to study" — that ice should study. kt He
showed' an eagerness to learn" — that lie n
learn.
4. The infinitive i also modifies Borne aw
as, "He is old enough to write."
how to write."
5. It is sometimes used absol
>'the truth I was in fault."
14° ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. [289
EXERCISES.
To steal is sinful. To hi to be happy. It i^
isantto see the sun. I hope to see you. love
to play. I heard bim speak. They would have him go.
We* are anxious to learn. We were all eager to hear the
news. My father taught nie to write. I am in haste to
return. The ship was ready to sail
TO BE CORRECT!
He bids me to ge. Do you hear the bell to ring? I
the sun to rise. We dare not to disobey him,
Et[ i.i' iiE INFINITIVE .AND OBJECT LVE
CASE.
280. The infinitive has sometimes a subject
in the objective case; as, "I believe him to
be dishonest."
1. Certain verbs of thinking and judging; such
as, think, judge, hold, consider, regard, admit,
hiQio, suppose, suspect, acknowledge, declare, u
rant, are followed by an-objective case, 'and ii.
itiw, standing in the i elation of subject and, pre-
dicate.
2. The objective case thus used as the subj<
of- the infinitive is always different from the sub-
ject of the leading verb, both in the contracted
and expanded form.
EXERCISES.
I thought him to be innocent. He judged it to be wrong.
We know him to be honest. They supposed him to be
there. We hold these truths to be self evident •
290—291] rf . 141
. in maki
Write an j thin]
LESSON L
RULES XXIY.
-90. Participles refer to nouns and \
nouns ; as, "-James, seated at the table,
iding;" "He stood leaning on his staff."
1. The participle i -o refer to a clause or
tence ; as, u He /wa nedtoday the*
wing to the the bad stat<
vinq refers to
particip sly;
as, "Generall
bl<
\\. Whefl a '
beconv cljective uh1<
•and with the same; as,
" Unsung
4. The participle ma;.
'The beaten 1 "Tl an:"
291. Verbal aonuns in nee have the same
government as the the verbs from which tl
are derived; as, "Writing lett<
employment. '\ "She was e d in reading
Plato."
'■'-' ■ IMENTAKY QRAMMAR.
1- The verba] noun \\\ing may be distinguished
from the participle in % by. its ability to form
the subject of a proposition.
2. The compound participle is sometimes used
as a Verbal noun ; as, " Caesar-s haying crossed the
Rubicon spread consternation throughout Rome."
. .3. If the verbal noun is preceded by the, it is
followed by of or both should be omitted; as,
By the observing of truth" or "JBy observing
the truth." . *
EXERCISES.
SSwaman ploughing in the fields. But yonder
comes the powerful king of day, "rejoicing in the east.
Crowned with her pail the tripping milkmaid sings.
Having learned his. lesson, lie went out to play. She was
engaged in writing, a Jetter. Thomas went away withour
taking leave of either of us. The trumpet having sound-
ed the combatants charged.
RULE XXVII. THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE.
92. A noun or proribun joined with a parti-
ciple having no dependence upon other words
is put in the nominative case absolute ; as.,
' Tarquinius reigning, Pythagoras came into
Italy."
In. such cases the noun with, the participle is
different from the subject, of the participial sen-
tence.
RIJLE !XXVII. THE VOCATIVE CASE.
293. The name of the person or thing ad-
dressed is put in the vocative; as, "James,
listen to me."
'2^4] »NTINUE
In titles of book if chapters, &c,
in abrupt excJamnii noun ia
sonietirm
are ral
• "' ''"
wo :
xerci^es;
Supper being ended we went out to- walk. Jesus had
oonveyed himself away a multitude being in that place.
Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. Ho! every one that
tkirsteth, conic ye to the waters. Men, brethren, and
fathers hearken.
"Write <i letter to sojtne friend describing what you e
on your last ride.
LE L.
RULE XXVIII.
I Tho subjunctive mode u
press future couth ons
if, though, whether, &c; a)
that joined to a comm
and sometimes after tJ ajuncti bs.
The subjunctive mock- is ue ily when ;
C0nting< ncy relates to the future and when an
auxiliary ' .-.stood.: lie be - "
dioua he will learn," that is, "If he shall bo
Btudious.''
M !• \ T V ' ' ' ft R
EXERGISES.
If he acquire riches, the y will corrupt him ' will
not..l ted unless he repent. Wait till i come,
any condition lest it happen to 1><j your.own.
I thou reform. Oh! that 1 were at hom^T
Rl % XIX. THE [TSE OF THE TE
205. Those tenses onl} s]b be employ
which express correctly the intended.
- 1. Tho perfect participle must not be used for
past indicative, nor ("be past tense i for>the p'e'r-
• participle ; as, " I done it iu great haste,''
/ did; she come for Bhe came; he begun for he be-
gan ; the river has'/ro^l over for- has frozen ; the
horse v\ hard For way d}iv(
2. The ']->>< .\-;i-m i perfect must.not be used with
modifiers expressing past time; as, /"I have fin-
i bed the work two days ago-."
3. The tenses of the potential should correspond
with each other, n< lome unto me
that ye might have life," but u Ye. would not."
4. The \ / and tie must not be confounded
with se£ and /^//. To s is -'" re«£ Dw a scatf, /o
s& raeana to place. We sit down, but set things
in order. There is, also, an intransitive verb to
set; as, "The sun se 'ZW^ means to recline ;
tot lay means to place. We lie down; we lay a
thing down. In "I lay dq;wn yesterdry," lay is
is the past of lie.
TO BE CORRECTED.
They desired to hav^ seen you respected. I expected
to have seen them before the news should have reache
2^5] GENERAL EXERCISES. 145
fchein, but urgent duties will have i. ;. I bemr.
to think I had don. i have all for-
sook him. The boil has ran'-. Robert has come to the
same conclusion last week. ting by the
-way-side. A stone was laying in tl
down.
IK kjtl U> os SYNTAX.
The committee will visit the school. I saw
James walking in the garden with his mother.
Cary translated the works of Dantej the great
Italian poet.
•How shall I praise t.hcc. Lord of light?
v all thy generous love doc-tare v"
This is a faithful saying, and worth; of all ac-
ceptation, that Jesus Olni into the world
to save sinners.
James will assist 3 oa
• Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature-
■To err is human, to forgi "nc."
•■Some place the bliss in action, some in case;
Those call \i pleasure, ancTcontentment, t Ik
Admitting this, the point is notpcoved. •
He looks downcast and weary. Mary app<
. ted v, it',, her lot. 'Jam< 1 T have heen
lying our Xou and Mary have im-
ir time. This ia the book of which
;:■ • 0 .!<■
man 1: "'■•
ir friend yonder! Which is >a<L
Whoever do*i wrong shot .nishment
7
146 MEXTARY GRAMMAR. [295
Whence and what art thou execrable shape?
"Full many a flower is born to blush unseen."
Thev tliat are wh6le need not a physician, but
they that are sick.
;- But strew his ashes to the wind
\Vi.w o sword or voice has served mankind ;
And is he dead whose glorious mind
Lifts thine on high ?
To live in hearts we leave behind
[s not to die.'"
Tlmcc is he armed that hath his quarrel just.
Time and tide wait for no man.
I£ach man has his task to perform.
'■■ 1 dare do a-ll that may become a man;
Who 'dares do more, is none.*'
The passions under control, a man's enemies
are subdued.
Upon the landlord's leaving the room 1 could
not avoid expressing my concern for the stranger.
The youth desires to learn. t cannot tell who
it is*. They elected Cfce'ro^ the distinguished
orator, consul. He sleeps the sleep of death.
Charles the Fifth appointed Phillip his successor.
Give us this day our daily broad. J will send you
a present.
He did the flavor without being requested.
My father returned three days ago.
My judgment approves this measure, and my
whole heart is in it, All that I have, anfi all that
I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am now
^ready here to stake upon it ; and I leave off, as 1
295] i iWERAU EXERCISES. 147
began, that five or die, survive or perish, I am
'• the declaration.
'Thou kingly spirit throned among the hills .
Thou dread Ambassador fi ih to heaven,
Great Hierach. {ell thou the silent -
And tell the stars, an the rising sun
Earth with her thousand
a
How mituy hired servants of my father's have
ad enough and to spare, and I perish with
hunger! I will aviso and go to my father, and
will say .unto him. Father, 1 have sinned against
heaven and before thee, and am no more worthy*
• be called thy son :' make me as one of ^>
hired servants.
.••'For mine is the lay 4>ha< lightlj M<
And mine are the murmuring dying not<
That fall a s snow on \
And melt in the heart as instantly."
Let any man resolve to do right now leaving
then to do as it can ; and it be were to live to the
age of Methuselah he would never dp wrong.
• Like leaves on trees the race of maid is found ;
y0Y ith, not? witheicjjog on the ground.
•■ He stood and called
HLis legions, angel forma, who lay entrant
Thick as autumnal leaves that atroir the bro
1 d Vallan ;
When I consider Thy bea of Thy
lingers; tin Q and th< -. which Thou
hast ordained ; what ie man that Thou art mind-
148 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. .[295
ful of him, and the son of man thai Thou visitest
him?
" Oh ? that this lovely vale were mine !
. . Then, from glad youth to calm decline.
Sly years would gently glide j
Hope would rejoice in endless dreams.
And memory's oft-returning gleams
By peace he sanctified ! " ,
The Throne of eternityis a throne of mercy
and love. God has permitted and invited us to
repose ourselves and our hopes on that which
alone is everlasting and unchangeable. He takes
us from earth that He may lead us to heaven,
share with us His own immortality, admit us to
His everlasting habitation, and crown us with his
eternity.
Doing well has something more in it than the
fulfilling of a duty. It is the cause of a just sense
of elevation of character; it clears and strength-
ens the spirits ; it gives higher reaches of thought ;
it widens our benevolence, and* makes the cur-
rent of our peculiar affections swift and .deep.
Fisrrs.
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